Translation and Technology Essay Example for Free

version and Technology Essay content itemisation of visualises, Tables and Boxes Series Editors Preface Acknowledgements List of Abbreviations mental hospital 1 Definition of Terms Machine description Human-aided tool r terminalition Machine-aided humankind edition Human version The location industry polish 2 reading Studies and variant Technology deracination guess Academic and professional groups in variant lingual theories in auto edition organizations rendition studies The commentary military operation Conclusion 3 Machine. interpreting schemas major(ip) historical developments Architectures Hybrid and interactive railcar transmutation systems Online work reading systems commercial message appliance interlingual rendition systems Reasons for apply elevator car commentary systems Conclusion vii ix xii xiv xvi 1 6 8 11 13 14 19 20 22 22 26 30 36 43 55 57 58 66 84 85 87 89 91 viii Contents. 4 Computer-Aided Translation Tools and Re addresss Workben ches Translation support tools and resources Localization tools Commercial computer-aided interpreting tools commonplaces for entropy riff Conclusion 5 Evaluating Translation Tools Machine deracination systems Computer-aided translation tools Stakeholders Evaluation methods habitual frame hold outs for evaluating translation tools Conclusion 6 recent Developments and Future Directions Machine translation systems Computer-aided translation tools Translation systems with run-in engineering science.Translation systems for minority run-ins Translation on the web Machine translation systems and the semantic web The mending industry Conclusion 7 Translation Types Revisited Relationships in the midst of topics and translation types Machine translation systems Computer-aided translation tools Conclusion Appendices References Index 93 93 106 113 117 119 128 129 129 131 133 135 139 151 152 152 156 157 162 164 166 170 171 172 173 191 193 195 197 204 218 List of calculates, Tables and Boxes Figures 1. 1 1. 2 1. 3 1. 4 1. 5 2. 1 2. 2 2. 3 2. 4 2. 5 2. 6 2. 7 2. 8 2. 9 2. 10 2. 11 2. 12 2. 13 3. 1 3. 2 3. 3 3. 4 3. 5 3. 6 3. 7 3. 8 3. 9.Classification of translation types Machine translation place Machine translation system based on usage Human-aided form translation model Machine-aided human translation model Chronology of translation theories Translation process model physical exertion of sentence representations Holmes schema of translation studies.A schema of employ translation studies A model of the translation process including pre- and post-editing tasks Example of an incline SL school text edition and its pre-edited version unedited and post-edited Spanish utensil translation output Example of natural and controlled languages Example of original incline text and its AECMA simplified position version Example of natural English, simplified English and simplified Arabic texts Example of an English controlled language text and its translations Illu stration of the translation process employ a motorcar translation system.Chronology of machine translation development Example of structural representations Machine translation architectures Direct translation model Interlingua model Interlingua multilingual machine translation system model Transfer model Transfer using tree-to-tree parsing Transfer multilingual machine translation system model ix 7 9 10 12 13 23 29 31 37 42 43 44 46 48 50 51 53 54 58 68 68 70 72 72 74 75 76 x List of Figures, Tables and Boxes 3. 10 3. 11 3. 12 3. 13 4. 1 4. 2 4. 3 4. 4 4. 5 4. 6 4. 7 4. 8 4. 9 4. 10 4. 11 4. 12 4. 13 4. 14 4. 15 4. 16 4. 17 4. 18 4. 19 4. 20 4. 21 4. 22 5. 1 5. 2 5. 3 5. 4 5. 5 6. 1 6. 2.Statistical-based model Probabilities work flow in the statistical-based woo shot Example-based model Translations by online machine translation systems Example of HTML code in a web page Example of the web page without HTML code Example of a translation workflow using a translation memory syst em Example of an English source text Pre-translation 1 Database model in translation memory systems Reference model in translation memory systems.Flowchart to illustrate how to build a par all toldel corpus Example of a text header in a corpus Example of part-of-speech tagging Example of a concordance for the word obese Types of tool manipulationd in a localization project Example of the translation process using a machine translation system, a translation database and a terminology database Example of TMXdata-sharing Example of a header in TMX.Example of a body in TMX Example of a header in TBX Example of a body in TBX Example of XLIFF in the localization process Example of a header in XLIFF Example of a body in XLIFF Example of an alternate translation constituent in XLIFF Example of a glass-box evaluation Example of a black-box evaluation Example of an evaluation process Standardization projects for evaluating machine translation systems EAGLES general evaluation framework Fut ure- intake model of translation technology.Speech technology in translation 78 80 81 87 99 99 102 102 103 103 104 109 110 111 112 114 117 great hundred 121 122 124 125 126 127 127 127 138 139 141 142 145 154 158 Tables 1. 1 3. 1 An example of a table for describing translation types Example of a word entry in KAMI 8 67 List of Figures, Tables and Boxes xi 3. 2 3. 3 3. 4 4. 1 4. 2 4. 3 4. 4 4. 5 4. 6 4. 7 4. 8 7. 1 7. 2 7. 3 7. 4 7. 5 7. 6 7. 7 7. 8 7. 9 7. 10 7. 11 7. 12 7. 13 7. 14 7. 15 7. 16 7. 17 7. 18 7. 19 7. 20.Imitation in the example-based approach Semantic similarity in the example-based approach Classification of commercial machine translation systems Example of perfective aspect matching Examples of fuzzy matching Higher and lower threshold percentages for fuzzy matching Examples of matching suggestions for relegate Example of segments Example of translation units Example of English-French translation units from a database.Classification of commercial computer-aided t ranslation tools form of automation Human intervention Integrated tools Application of theory Application of theory in machine translation systems Source-language texts Target-language texts Stages of the translation process Types of text Language dependency Types of source language Data interchange standards in translation Translation groups.and data interchange standards Levels of evaluation Methods of evaluation Features in a machine translation system Language coverage in machine translation systems Texts and computer-aided translation tools Language dependency in computer-aided translation tools Number of languages in computer-aided translation tools 82 82 88 95 96 97 98 100 101 102 118 174 175 175 176 177 178 180 181 182 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 193 194 194 195 Boxes 1. 1 5.1 A translator at work FEMTI evaluation framework 14 147 Series Editors Preface Recent years have witnessed momentous changes in the study of Modern Languages, globally as well as nationally. On the u nity hand, the rapid growth of English as a universal lingua franca has rendered the omit of other languages a less compelling commodity.On the other hand, the demand for intercultural mediators including translators and interpreters has grown as a result of m whatsoever recent social, political and economic developments these include legislative changes, the emergence of supranational organisations, the restraint of travel, tele communication theory, commercial pressures raising aw argonness of local needs, migration and employment mobility, and a heightened aw arness of lingual and human rights.Today, lingually oriented students wishing to pursue a c areer in which they are able to further their invade in languages and cultures would be more inclined to choose vocationally relevant courses in which translation and interlingual rendition play an historic part rather than traditional Modern Language degrees. Thus the possibilities for professional work in translation and interp reting have been broaden, evently as a result of developments in technology, whether as facilitating the translation process or as a means of dissemination and broadening access to communications in a range of media.The role of translation is, for example, becoming increasingly important in the scope of modern media overmuch(prenominal) as television and cinema, whether for documentary or entertainment purposes.And the technological possibilities for providing interpreting services, whether to the law of nature officer on the beat or to the businessperson on a contrasting continent, have extended the previously physi visity confined nature of mediating the spoken word. Not only do these new vistas subject up opportunities for the professional linguist, they in addition point to expanding areas of question in Translation and Interpreting Studies. Practice and theory are of mutual benefit, particularly in the episode of a relatively young discipline such as Translation Stu dies.As a result, the first amaze of this serial publication, written primarily for the MA and in advance(p) undergraduate student, is to high-pitchedlight contemporary issues and concerns in order to provide informed, theoretically based, accounts of developments in translation and interpretation.The second base aim is to provide ready access for students interested in the study and pursuit of Modern Languages to xii Series Editors Preface xiii vocational issues which are of relevance to the contemporary world of translating and interpreting. The final aim is to offer informed updates to practising professionals on recent developments in the field impacting on their discipline.Linguistic, Culture and Translation Studies University of Surrey Guildford UK GUNILLA ANDERMAN MARGARET ROGERS Acknowledgements I am indebted to three individuals for their contri onlyions. This obtain would have interpreted more time to complete if it had non been for Chooi Tsien Yeo who researched bac kground t from each oneing for me.Words can non express my gratitude to Stephen Moore, in between translation deadlines, for putting his experiences as a professional translator into writing. I am extremely indebted to Paul Marriott for his comments and suggestions, particularly on fortune to visualize a new way to depict the multidimensional classification of translation types in Chapter 7.I would like to acknowledge especially the Duke University Libraries and Institute of Statistics and Decision Science at Duke University in providing me with the environment and research facilities where or so of this book was written. Also my thanks to the National University of Singapore Libraries, George Edward subroutine library at the University of Surrey, and the Department of Statistics and actuarial Science at the University of Waterloo for their help.I would likewise like to acknowledge the following authors, publishers and organizations for allowing the use of copyright tangible in this book John Hutchins, Harold Somers and Elsevier (Academic Press Ltd) for the classification of translation types in Chapter 1 Eugene Nida and the Linguistic beau monde of America for the translation process in Chapter 2 John Smart and Smart Communications, Inc.for the controlled and simplified English samples in Chapter 2 Francis Bond and Takefumi Yamazaki for the KAMI MalayEnglish dictionary entry in Chapter 3 Paolo Dongilli and Johann Gamper for the edifice of a parallel corpus in Chapter 4 Tony Jewtushenko and Peter Reynolds of OASIS for XLIFF in Chapter 4 Enrique de Argaez at Internet World Stats for the statistical figure on the Internet population in Chapter 6 Michael Carl, Reinhard Schaler, Andy Way, springing cow Science and Business Media, and Kluwer Academic Publishers for the model of the future use of translation technology in Chapter 6.To Antonio Ribeiro, Tessadit Lagab, Margaret Rogers and Chooi Tsien Yeo, my most sincere thanks for translating from English int o Portuguese, French, German and Chinese respectively. I am solely responsible for any translation errors that occurred. A special thank you goes to Elsie Lee, Shaun Yeo, Angeliki Petrits, Mirko Plitt and Ken Seng Tan for answering rough of my queries. xiv Acknowledgements xvTo Caroline, Elizabeth, Gillian and Lyndsay, thank you for helping out with keying in corrections on the earlier drafts. Lastly, to my sifu and friend Peter Newmark, a big thank-you for all the translation discussions we had during our coffeebiscuit sessions years ago.If it had not been for the series editors, Gunilla Anderman and Margaret Rogers, this book would not have been written. I am forever grateful to both of them for their feedback and comments. Thanks to Jill Lake of Palgrave Macmillan for her patience and understanding collect to my country-hopping from Southeast Asia to North America during the writing of this book. Waterloo, Canada CHIEW KIN QUAH List of Abbreviations.ACRoTERMITE AECMA AIA ALPAC ALPS ALT-J/C ALT-J/E ALT-J/M AMTA ASCC ASD ATA BASIC BLEU BSO CAT CAT2 CESTA CFE CIA CICC CRATER CTE CULT DARPA DBMT DIPLOMAT DLT DTS EAGLES EARS EDIG nomenclature of Telecommunications European connective of Aerospace Industries Aerospace Industries draw of America robotlike Language bear on Advisory Committee willing Language Processing system Automatic Language Translator Japanese to Chinese Automatic Language.Translator Japanese to English Automatic Language Translator Japanese to Malay Association of Machine Translation in the Americas Automatic Spelling Checker Checker AeroSpace and demur American Translators Association British American Scientific outside(a), Commercial Bilingual Evaluation Understudy Buro voor Systeemontwikkeling Computer-Aided Translation Constructors, Atoms and Translators Campagne dEvaluation de Systemes de Traduction Automatique Caterpillar Fundamental English aboriginal Intelligence position Center of International Cooperation for Computeriza tion Corpus Resources and Terminology Extraction Caterpillar.Technical English Chinese University Language Translator Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency Dialogue-based Machine Translation Distributed talented Processing of Language for Operational Machine Aided Translation Distributed Language Translation Descriptive Translation Studies Expert Advisory Group on Language Engineering Standards Effective, Affordable Reusable Speech-to-Text European Defence Industries Group xvi List of Abbreviations xvii.ELDA ELRA ENGSPAN ENIAC EURODICAUTUM EUROSPACE EUROTRA EVALDA EWG FAHQT/FAHQMT FEMTI GENETER GETA HAMT HICATS HT HTML IAMT IATE INTERSECT ISI ISLE ISO JEIDA JEITA JICST-E KAMI KANT KGB LDC LISA LMT LTC LTRAC MAHT MANTRA MARTIF Evaluations and Language resources Distribution Agency European Language Resources Association English Spanish Machine Translation System Electronic quantitative Integrator and Computer European.Terminology Database Aerospaceand Defence Industries Associa tion of Europe European Translation Infrastructure dEVALuation a ELDA Evaluation Working Group Fully Automatic High Quality (Machine) Translation A Framework for the Evaluation of Machine Translation in ISLE Generic Model for Terminology Groupe dEtude pour la Traduction Automatique Human-Aided/Assisted Machine Translation Hitachi Computer Aided Translation System Human Translation HyperText Markup Language International Association of Machine Translation Inter-Agency Terminology Exchange International Sample of English Contrastive.Texts International Statistical Institute International Standards for Language Engineering International cheek for Standardization Japan Electronic Industry Development Association Japan Electronics and learning Technology Association Japan Information Center of Science and Technology Kamus Melayu-Inggeris (Malay-English Dictionary) Knowledge-based Accurate Translation Komitet Gosudarstvennoi Bezopasnosti Linguistic Data puddle Localisation Industry and Standards Association Logic-based Machine Translation Language Technology Centre Language Translation Resources Automatic Console Machine-Aided/Assisted Human Translation Machine Assisted Translation Machine decipherable Terminology Interchange change xviii List of Abbreviations.MASTOR MAT METAL METU MLIR MT NAATI NIST OASIS OCP OCR OLIF OS OSCAR PaTrans PAHO PDA PESA RDF RFC SALT SGML SPANAM SUSY SYSTRAN TAP TAUM TBX TEMAA TGT-1 THETOS TMF TMX TOLL TONGUES TS TTS Multilingual Automatic Speech-to-Speech Translator Machine-Aided/Assisted Translation Mechanical Translation and Analysis of Language Middle East Technical University MultiLingual Information recovery Machine.Translation National Accreditation Authority for Translators and Interpreters Ltd. National Institute of Standards and Technology Organization for the Advancement of Structured Information Standards Oxford Concordance Programme Optical Character Recognition Open Lexicon Interchange Format Operating System Open Stand ards for Container/Content Allowing Re-use PatentTranslation Pan-American Health Organization Personal Digital Assistant Portuguese-English meter Alignment Resource Description Framework Request for Comments Standards-based Access to Lexicographical Terminological Multilingual Resources Standard Generalised Markup.Language Spanish American Machine Translation System Saarbrucker UbersetzungsSYstem System Translation Think-Aloud Protocols Traduction automatique a lUniversite de Montreal TermBase eXchange Testbed Study of Evaluation Methodologies Authoring Aids Text-into-Gesture Translator Text into Sign Language Automatic Translator for Polish Terminological Markup Framework Translation Memory eXchange Thai On-Line Library Act II Audio Voice Translation Guide Systems Translation Studies Theoretical Translation Studies List of Abbreviations xixWebDIPLOMAT WebOnt WWW W3C XLIFF XLT XML Web Distributed Intelligent Processing of Language for Operational Machine Aided Translation Web Onto logy World Wide Web WWW Consortium XML Localisation Interchange File Format XML Representation of Lexicons and Terminologies Extensible or Extensive Markup Language This page intentionally left blank Introduction For over half a century, the demand for a variety of translations by different groups of end-users has enabled many types of translation tools to be developed. This is mull overed in the systems that will be discussed in this book, ranging from machine translation systems, computer-aided translation tools and translation resources.The bulk of books and articles on translation technology centering on the development of these systems and tools have been written from the point of befool of researchers and developers. More recent publications written with translators in mind have focuse on the use of particular tools. This book is intended as an introduction to translation technology for students of translation. It can also be multipurpose to professional translators and th ose interested in knowing about translation technology. A different approach is taken in that descriptions of particular tools are not provided, and the development of different machine translation and computer-aided translation tools and their uses are discussed.Programming details and mathematical equations are not considered, except in the discussion of the statistical approach to machine translation where minimal essential formulae are include. Descriptions are given to allow readers to further check out specific approaches or issues that might interest them, using references cited throughout the book. It is also important to note that no particular approach or design is deemed to be better than any other. Each and all(prenominal) one has their strengths and weaknesses. In many cases, readers will find that examples of systems and tools are given but this does not suggest that they are the best they are simply examples to illustrate the points made. 1 2 Translation and Technol ogyWhile researching this book, I discovered that the majority of publications from the literature on translation technology are about the development of machine translation systems, primarily involving experimental systems developed or being developed at a bod of universities and large commercial corporations across the globe. The book will target that many of these systems never achieved their commercial potential difference and remained as experimental tools, while some others served as tools for other natural-language processing applications. By contrast, not much literature perk upms to be available on computeraided tools such as translation memory systems.As we shall see in this book, most computer-aided translation tools are developed by commercial companies and, as a result, progress reports on these tools are rarely published in the public domain. Furthermore, to cater to different needs and demands, a tool like a translation memory system comes in many versions from th e most sanctioned to the most advanced. Insights into the use of these tools can be assemble in translator magazines and occasionally also affix on the World Wide Web (WWW). The evaluation of translation tools falls into a field that is wellresearched. again we will see that most of the literature focuses on the evaluation of machine translation systems.Furthermore, the extensive use of translation tools and translation processes involved in the localization industry tend to be discussed separately, giving the plan that they are not relate to translation. These two areas are, however, directly relevant to translation technology. Hence they are also included in this book. Essentially, the book contains what is felt should be included in order to provide an overview of translation technology. In order to keep the book at the given length, the topics have been carefully selected with some appoint in greater detail than others.In some chapters, an abbreviated historical backgroun d has been deemed necessary in order to provide a better understanding of the topics discussed, especially in the description of the development of machine translation systems and their evaluation.However, in all cases, references have been provided which readers may choose to pursue at a afterward time. Suggestions for further reading are provided at the end of each chapter (Chapters 1 to 6). The first chapter discusses the definitions of terms referring to the use of computers in translation activities. Some of the terms can be confusing to anyone who is unfamiliar with translation tools.In some cases, the same translation tools are given different names depending on what they are used for in other cases, a tool may be differently classified depending on the status of those who have developed that tool. Introduction 3 The aim in this chapter is therefore to clarify these terminological and related matters.An alternative perspective to the four basic translation types fully au tomated high-quality machine translation, human-aided machine translation, machine-aided human translation, and human translation first proposed by Hutchins and Somers (1992) is introduced to reflect current developments in translation technology. This will be explored in more detail in the final chapter where the four translation types are reviewed in copulation to topics described in the book.The second chapter discusses technology within the larger framework of Translation Studies as a discipline, focusing on the coincidenceship between the engineering of translation technology, on the one hand, and Translation Studies including translation theory, on the other hand. The relationship between academic and professional groups involved in translation is also examined.This in turn leads to a discussion of the involvement of a particular approach in linguistic theories known as formalisms in natural-language processing especially in the design of machine translation systems. A di fferent perspective on the translation process involving pre- and post-editing tasks using a special variety of language called controlled language is also presented.This translation process is described using the translation model proposed by Jakobson (1959/2000), a translation model that differs significantly from the one proposed by Nida (1969). The third chapter gives detailed descriptions of different machine translation system designs also known as architectures.The development of machine translation over several decades, its capabilities and the different types of machine translation systems, past and present, are also included. Both experimental and commercial systems are discussed, although the focus is on the experimental systems.Even though machine translation has been well-documented elsewhere, a discussion is deemed to be important for this book. It is felt that modern-day professional translators should be informed about machine translation systems because there is eve ry reason to believe, as we shall discover in Chapter 6, that future trends in translation technology are piteous towards integrated systems where at least one translation tool is combined with another, as is already the case in the integration of machine translation with translation memory.The fourth chapter describes the architectures and uses of several computer-aided translation tools, such as translation memory systems, as well as resources such as parallel corpora. Unlike machine translation systems, which are largely developed by universities, most computeraided translation tools are developed by commercial companies. Thus, 4 Translation and Technology information about such tools is harder to obtain. This chapter will also show that computer-aided translation tools are becoming more advanced and using different operating systems, and so standards for data interchange have been created. Three different standards are described. Currently available commercial translation tools are also discussed.In addition, this chapter presents an overview of other commercially available tools such as those used in the localization industry. The fifth chapter touches on the evaluation of translation technology. The discussion focuses on different groups of stakeholders from research sponsors to end-users. Also included in the discussion are the different methods of evaluation human, machine, and a combination of human and machine as evaluator. The choice of method used depends on who the evaluation is for and its purpose. It also depends on whether an entire tool or only some components are evaluated. Also described in this chapter is the general framework of evaluation offered by various research groups in the USA and Europe.The literature on evaluation concentrates on the evaluation of machine translation systems either during the developmental stage or after the process of development is completed. Less information is available on the evaluation of computeraided tra nslation tools. What is available is found mainly in translation journals, magazines and newsletters.The one-sixth chapter presents some recent developments and shows the direction in which translation technology is heading, in particular regarding the future of machine translation systems that are now incorporating speech technology features. The integration of speech technology and traditional machine translation systems allows translation not only between texts or between stretches of speech, but also between text and speech.This integration is proving to be useful in many specific situations around the globe especially in international relations and trade. This chapter also looks at research projects in countries that are involved in the development of translation tools for minority languages and discusses the problems encountered in developing machine translation systems for languages that are less well-known and not widely spoken.Another form of technology called the Semantic Web that has the potential to improve the movement of certain machine translation systems is also described. Included in this chapter, too, are issues such as linguistic dominance and translation demands on the WWW that are already shaping parts of the translation industry.The book concludes by presenting an expanded version of the four basic classifications of translation types as suggested by Hutchins and Somers (1992) and introduced in Chapter 1. It is cerebrate that the Introduction 5 one-dimensional linear continuum originally proposed is no longer able to accurately reflect current developments in translation technology.Translation tools today come in different versions and types depending on the purposes for which they are built. Some are multifunctional while others remain monofunctional. An alternative way must therefore be found to depict the complexities and multidimensional relationships between the four translation types and the topics discussed in this book.It is no t possible to put every single subject discussed here into one diagram or figure, and so, in order to gain a better understanding of how the issues are related to one another, they are divided into groups. Topics or issues in each group have a common theme that links them together, and are presented in a series of tables. However, it is important to bear in mind that not all topics can be presented neatly and comfortably even in this way.This clearly shows the complexity and multidimensionality of translation activities in the modern technological world. At the end of the book, several Appendices provide information on the various Internet sites for many different translation tools and translation support tools such as monolingual, bilingual, trilingual and multilingual dictionaries, glossaries, thesauri and encyclopaedia.Only a selected few are listed here, and as a result the lists are not exhaustive. It is also important to note that some Internet sites may not be permanent at t he time of the writing, every effort has been made to ensure that all sites are accessible. 1 Definition of Terms In translation technology, terms commonly used to describe translation tools are as follows machine translation (MT) machine-aided/assisted human translation (MAHT) human-aided/assisted machine translation (HAMT) computer-aided/assisted translation (CAT) machine-aided/assisted translation (MAT) fully reflexive high-quality (machine) translation (FAHQT/FAHQMT). Distinctions between some of these terms are not always clear.For example, computer-aided translation (CAT) is often the term used in Translation Studies (TS) and the localization industry (see the second part of this chapter), while the software community which develops this type of tool prefers to call it machine-aided translation (MAT). As the more familiar term among professional translators and in the field of Translation Studies, computer-aided translation is used throughout the book to represent both computer-aided translation and machine-aided translation tools, and the term aided is elect instead of assisted, as also in human-aided machine translation and machine-aided human translation. Figure 1. 1 distinguishes four types of translation relating human and machine involvement in a classification along a linear continuum introduced by Hutchins and Somers (1992 148).This classification, now more than a decade old, will become harder to harbor as more tools become multifunctional, as we shall see in Chapters 3, 4 and 6. Nevertheless, the concept in Figure 1. 1 remains useful as a point of reference for classifying translation in relation to technology. 6 Definition of Terms 7 MT CAT Machine Fully automated high quality (machine) translation (FAHQT/ FAHQMT) Human-aided machine translation (HAMT) Machine-aided human translation (MAHT) Human Human translation (HT) MT = machine translation CAT = computer-aided translation Figure 1. 1 Source Classification of translation types Hutch ins and Somers (1992) 148. The initial goal of machine translation was to build a fully self-moving high-quality machine translation that did not require any human intervention.At a 1952 conference, however, Bar-Hillel reported that building a fully automatic translation system was unrealistic and years later still remained convinced that a fully automatic high-quality machine translation system was essentially unattainable (Bar-Hillel 1960/2003 45). Instead, what has emerged in its place is machine translation, placed between FAHQT and HAMT on the continuum of Figure 1. 1. The main aim of machine translation is still to generate translation automatically, but it is no longer required that the output quality is high, rather that it is fit-for-purpose (see Chapters 2 and 3). As for human-aided machine translation and machine-aided human translation, the boundary between these two areas is especially unclear.