Cesare Lombroso

Cesare Lombroso was the founder of the Italian School of Positivist Criminology. He rejected the established Classical School, which held that crime was a characteristic trait of human nature and that rational choices were the foundation of behavior. Lombroso, using a scientific approach and concepts drawn from physiognomy, early eugenics, psychiatry, and Social Darwinism, argued that criminality was inherited, and that the â€Å"born criminal† could be identified by physical defects, which confirmed a criminal as â€Å"savage,† or â€Å"atavistic. While his particular identifying characteristics are no longer considered valid, the idea of factors that predispose certain individuals to commit crime continues to be foundational to work in criminology. Together with his emphasis on the scientific method, this revolutionary approach has earned Lombroso the title â€Å"father† of scientific criminology He was later forced to considerably alter his views after extens ive study of the phenomenon of Eusapia Palladino, a famous spiritualist. He later wrote, â€Å"I am ashamed and grieved at having opposed with so much tenacity the possibility of the so-called spiritistic facts.Cesare Lombroso was famous in the nineteenth century because he claimed to have discovered the cause of crime and wrote books. In these books, Lombroso claimed that anatomical investigations of the post mortem bodies of criminals revealed that they were physically different from normal people. He maintained that criminals have stigmata (signs), and that these stigmata consist of abnormal dimensions of the skull and jaw. Lombroso even claimed that different criminals have different physical characteristics which he could discern.In time, and under the influence of his son-in-law, Guglielmo Ferrero, Lombroso included the view that social factors were also involved in the causation of crime and that all criminality is not inborn. â€Å"Born criminals† were thus viewed by in his earliest writings as a form of human sub-species. In his later writings, however, he began to regard them less as evolutionary throwbacks and more in terms of arrested development and degeneracy. He popularized the notion of a â€Å"born criminal† through biological determinism criminals have particular physiognomic attributes or deformities.Physiognomy attempts to estimate character and personality traits from physical features of the face or the body. In Lombroso's view, whereas most individuals evolve, the violent criminal had devolved, and therefore constituted a societal or evolutionary regression. He concentrated on a purported scientific methodology in order to identify criminal behavior and isolate individuals capable of the most violent types of crime. He advocated the study of individuals using measurements and statistical methods in compiling anthropological, social, and economic data.With successive research and more thorough statistical analysis, he modif ied his theories. He continued to define atavistic stigmata, and in addition, he identified two other types of criminal: the insane criminal, and the â€Å"criminaloid. † Although insane criminals bore some stigmata, they were not born criminals; rather they became criminal as a result â€Å"of an alteration of the brain, which completely upsets their moral nature. † Among the ranks of insane criminals were kleptomaniacs and child molesters.Criminaloids had none of the physical peculiarities of the born or insane criminal and became involved in crime later in life, and tended to commit less serious crimes. Criminaloids were further categorized as habitual criminals, who became so by contact with other criminals, the abuse of alcohol, or other â€Å"distressing circumstances. † He was also an advocate for humane treatment of criminals, arguing for the removal of atavistic, born criminals from society for their own and society's protection, for rehabilitation for those not born criminal, and against capital punishment.His work was always hampered by his Social Darwinist assumptions. In particular, he held the pre-genetic conception of evolution as â€Å"progress† from â€Å"lower life forms† to â€Å"higher life forms† together with an assumption that the more â€Å"advanced† human traits would dispose their owners to living peacefully within a hierarchical, urbanized society far different from the conditions under which human beings evolved. In attempting to predict criminality by the shapes of the skulls and other physical features of criminals, he had in effect created a new pseudoscience of forensic phrenology.While he was a pioneer of scientific criminology, and his work was one of the bases of the eugenics movement in the early twentieth century, his work is no longer considered as providing an adequate foundation for contemporary criminology. However, psychiatry and abnormal psychology have retained his ide a of locating crime completely within the individual and utterly divorced from the surrounding social conditions and structures. Lombroso developed the concept of the â€Å"atavistic,† or born, criminal, based on anthropometric measurements.Although the scientific validity of the concept has been questioned by other criminologists, Lombroso is still credited with turning attention from the legalistic study of crime to the scientific study of the criminal. This new scientific criminology valued the experimental method based on empirically discovered facts and their examination. The knowledge gained was to be achieved carefully, over time, through systematic observation and scientific analysis. In his later work, He was noted for advocating humane treatment of criminals and limitations on the use of the death penalty.

Activity Based Costing of City Services Essay

Required: 1. The new mayor became elected with the pledge of rapid privatization. But instead of downright privatization, his first action was to ask for cost estimation of public service. Why do you think he asked for cost estimation instead of privatizing the public service right away? Was it a sensible action? 2. Existing DOT employees were allowed to bid against private businesses. Was it a sensible decision? For example, they could have been just fired. 3. How well did the project team implement ABC for estimating the cost of pothole filling? Do you agree with the manner in which they treated equipment cost and excess capacity? 4. Should the city have allowed the municipal employees to see the ABC estimates and given them the opportunity to reduce their costs? 5. Calculate the bids the city workers will issue for fixing potholes in the Northwest and Northeast quadrants. 6. The new mayor wants to continue to outsource city services through competitive bidding. Do you think that’s a good idea? What are the concerns the city should consider? Colorscope, Inc. Instruction: 1. What was the value statement of Colorscope to customers? In other words, why would any customer go to Colorscope instead of other large printers? We are going to analyze cost structure of Colorscope using a departmental cost allocation method. This is a two stage system. First categorize cost to different production centers (= departments = Job prep, Scanning, Assembly, Output, and Quality). Then allocate cost in each center to a job in the second stage. 2. Complete the following first stage allocation. Job prep Wages $8,000 Depreciation Rent Others* Total MOH DLH POHR Floor space * allocated by DLH Scanning Assembly Output Quality Idle Total 3. Analyze the job profitability by filling out the following sheet with dollars. (Hint: Add labor cost and allocated MOH.) Job # 61001 61002 Revenue Materials Job prep $9,600 Scanning Assembly Output Quality Net profits 62001 Idle Total Profit Then summarize your findings. 4. Analyze the rework cost by filling out the following sheet for the jobs with a rework. Job # 61001 61002 Materials Job prep Scanning Assembly Output Quality Net profits 62001 Total What is the financial consequence of reworks? (Hint: compare the profits before and after reworks.) 5. What would you recommend to Colorscope Inc. to improve their business?

The origins and objectives of the Taliban's domestic policies while in Essay

The origins and objectives of the Taliban's domestic policies while in power in Afghanistan - Essay Example It can sometimes be understood to mean objections to western ideas, coupled with anti-American sentiments. A history of the Taliban in Afghanistan shall first be presented, along with a discussion of their rise to power in Afghanistan. Taliban’s ideologies on anti-modernism shall also be discussed, including the origins and objectives of these domestic policies in Afghanistan. Details on its anti-modernist goals and activities shall also be detailed in this discussion. The Taliban is an Islamic extremist group which took over Afghanistan’s government in 1996 until they were driven out by American forces in 2001 (Marsden, 2002, p. 124). This group has been considered a safe haven to the al-Qaeda terrorist group, assisting leader Osama bin Laden in his terrorist activities. This group has also set forth a rigid stance on Islamic Law while executing criminals and outlawing the education of women (Nolan, 2006, p. 19). The group has been out of Afghanistan for many years now, however it is still considered an influential group in Afghanistan, implementing policies which seek to undermine the US-supported government. Pakistan’s support for the group has limited the international efforts towards controlling these insurgents and ending their activities in Afghanistan (Nolan, 2006, p. 19). The US will eventually fully withdraw from the country by 2014 and since 2010, the US and Afghani government officials have been carrying out discussions o n conflict settlement. However, these talks have not sufficiently settled the Taliban issue in Afghanistan. The Afghan Mujahideen were associated with a group of tribal fighters whose only purpose or goal was to eliminate the Soviets, not so much to establish insurgent activities. The Mujahideen is considered a group of Afghans fighting against the PDPA and the Soviet troops; this group believed that they were involved in a holy war or a

The role of technology in global crime Research Proposal

The role of technology in global crime - Research Proposal Example Just like when youve bought the latest model of cell phone, before you know it, its obsolete. Okay, that was quite an exaggeration, but you get the point. Alongside its being fast-paced is price cutting, which is probably the reason why technology became so conventional, of course next to its main purpose—that is, to make mans life easier. However, though men are said to be good in nature, we always had the weakness for wealth, luxury, power, etc. Also, another sad fact that we have to put up with is that, technology cant choose its user, good or bad; it would facilitate his or her life all the same. Looking on both edges of the sword, "in the right hands, technology has the power to transform our lives in ways that only a generation ago we could never have imagined, but, in the wrong hands, technology can lead to identity theft, online auction fraud, child abduction, and many other crimes" (NCPC 2008). Yes, in a worse case scenario, technology could bring about such felony. The question is whats the role of technology in global crime? Does it resolve crime or only make it worse? Well, according to the Serious Organized Crime Agency (SOCA), technology played an increasing role in the serious crimes they handled, that groups of criminals worldwide are collaborating over the web (Heath 2008). In line with SOCAs view, last August 11, 2008, Brad Stone of The New York Times reported on "Global Trail of an Online Crime Ring" that Albert Gonzalez, 27, and his two Miami-based accomplices, Christopher Scott, 25, and Damon Patrick Toey, 23, were storing millions of stolen credit and debit card numbers on servers in Latvia and Ukraine, which they got from a server-breach of a Dallas-based restaurant chain together with other members of a ring that extended from Ukraine to Estonia, and imprinting some of those numbers on blank A.T.M. cards supplied by collaborators in China for use in cash machines. Furthermore, this

Opinion about William Bennet's 1998 Quote on Education Essay

Opinion about William Bennet's 1998 Quote on Education - Essay Example This phenomenon is still, however; conceptually unclear to many people and few understand how it impacts the schools on which the legalization operates (Neal & Kirp, 1985; 2000). There are various aspects of the modern schooling which have been concealed. These include the deterioration such a legalization system imposes in the morality of students and teachers versus that of the parents. The parents have no say when it comes to choosing their children’s teachers. There is not much information given on teachers because of the protection of such information by law. Interestingly, the State knows so little about it. In this confusion, the teachers who are disposed have no idea of each other’s information (State University, 2011). Duplication of knowledge has been proposed as the best way to go for developing countries. Yet, we have restrictions on copyright materials. It is common knowledge that not every student will invent new ideas. Setting up legal restrictions on who can use the education materials and how, poses a great challenge for those who might not afford the cost. As can be seen, the Copyright Act gives a number of exceptional situations to the above law. Protecting the author’s work is good, but this has an effect on limiting the number of people who can access them. This brings about discrimination since not all students will have the money to afford purchase of such materials (Neal & Kirp, 1985; 2000). The legalization of education system in the 1950s brought about the entry of minorities into the public schools that practiced segregation. However; this exposed them to greater problems of chaos and constant violence, which in most cases went unpunished leading to the white flight to private institutions of learning (State University, 2011). Legalizations of education institutions are mostly aimed at making the schools a conducive place for all to acquire education. However; given the restrictions imposed on the teachers and the administration, the schools lose focus on their main missions and objectives. The legalization leads to the known de-emphasis on the teaching process and learning, which are meant to be the basic tenets of institutional establishments in the first place. With the growth of the state into a more litigious status, the schools have become even more bureaucratic in the process. It is truly appalling since learning institutions are supposed to be flexible and nurtures of change, efficiency and effectiveness. Yet many agree that schools, especially institutions of higher learning are the most bureaucratic establishments in the current society. It is like copying the government system and perfecting the art of bureaucracy (State University, 2011). Given the legalization processes, the school administrators turn institutions into fiefdoms as places of exercising their unchecked authority. Principals have had to meet out serious and unfair punishments to teachers who are in record for havin g questioned their status quo. The restrictions given to education institutions could still be looked at as one way of the government’s evasion of responsibility for what goes on in these schools. Instead of being fully involved in the process, the state takes an oversight role and leaves the backlog of problems to the school authorities who end up misusing such powers. Laws alone without a thorough implementation and

Nanowire Battery Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Nanowire Battery - Research Paper Example The basic electrodes in a lithium ion battery are modified by nanotechnology to improve the performance. This article intends to discuss the objectives of the nanowire battery technology. The basic features and the technology behind these batteries are discussed along with their advantages. Finally, the challenges and applications of Nano wire batteries are presented. Introduction The speed of operation of the present generation computers, other electronic gadgets and even electric cars are increasing at an exponential rate. This presents a demand for equivalent high capacity batteries to power them with high charging and discharging rate. The batteries that power the high speed devices like laptops, mobile phones, video games and even electric cars lack these characteristics due to chemical constraints. The traditional Lithium-ion batteries transfer lithium ions from carbon anode to a metal oxide cathode. As the number of lithium ion held by one carbon ion is only one, the charge de nsity in these batteries is low. On the other hand, the Silicon anode has the capability to hold 4.4 lithium ions in one silicon atom. Scientists at the Stanford university (Chan. C.K. , Zhang. X. F. & Cui Y. , 2008) have explored the use of Silicon and Germanium nanowires for improved battery energy. This article intends to explore the technological insights of this Nano Wire battery technology. Objectives The existing rechargeable batteries are limited in electrical charge density as well as lifetime. The popular Lithium ion batteries used in portable electronic gadgets and cars have lithiated graphite as anode, LiPF6 as the electrolyte and the LiCoO2 as cathode. Their major disadvantages are high production cost and lack of resources like Co for mass production. The new Nano wire battery technology, aims at eliminating the drawbacks in this Lithium ion batteries. The major objectives of this technology are to use cathodes and anodes with materials of higher energy density and to optimize the design of the batteries for higher performance. Features and Advantages The anodes used in nanowire battery were made of Silicon and Germanium nanowires (chan et al. , 2008 ). Since Silicon has low discharge potential and charge capacity of 4200 mAh/g, it is more preferred than Germanium which has a theoretical charge capacity of 1600 mAh/g. The following Figure. 1. shows the nanowires of Silicon grown on the electrodes. Figure. 1. Silicon Nano wires grown on the electrodes. The potential advantages of the Nano Wire design are high surface to volume ratio which enables more electrode contact with the electrolyte, they provide continuous conduction of electrons within the electrode and finally, due to the fibrous design they are good in facile strain relaxation. These anodes of Silicon nanowire have ten times more storage capacity compared to the existing carbon anodes. The most critical parameter for the safe operation of a battery is the Solid – Electrode - Inte rface (SEI). In nanowire batteries, the SEI formation is more when there is Lithium insertion into Silicon layers. The SEI in Silicon nanowire batteries has an inner layer of inorganic lithium compound and an outer layer of organic lithium compound. Also the voltage dependence of the SEI morphology, allows more cycles of charging and discharging. The analysis of the impedance level of these batteries shows that the impedance is due to both the process of diffusion and the

Policing and Minorities Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Policing and Minorities - Essay Example African-Americans and Latinos are the victims of racial profiling in most cases. Certain officials like customs officials and airport officials also do racial profiling, disturbing the passengers. Policing targeting minorities are widespread. Thousands of complaints from African-Americans, Latinos and Asians have proved that racial profiling is a real happening. Victims of racial profiling are not only common people but also famous and rich people, celebrities, sports stars and people from all walks of life. There were cases when respected members of the society, like judges, lawyers, state legislators, and even representatives claimed that they were victims of racial profiling. This discriminatory stopping and checking by the police is disturbing thousands of pedestrians, innocent drivers, and shoppers and other helpless people across the nation. ‘War on Drugs’ as well as ‘War on Terror’ have given the police an excuse to suspect and check people whom they doubt as a terrorist or drug courier. This has resulted in several racial profiling issues. People will get humiliated and will lose their valuable time when they are unnecessarily stopped and checked by the police. Police has got a general belief that non-white people are mostly drug users and sellers. But studies (reports regarding police stops and checking) have revealed that people who are considered to be racially inferior are less likely to be having drugs or weapons with them compared to whites. Law enforcement agents are people who are having the policing authority for private or public purposes. Security guards at main offices or private institutions, police officers, and officers like airport security agents are having policing right which they misuse to create yet another racial discrimination issue. There were cases when airline pilots demanded people to disembark from the flights, as they suspected passengers because of their ethnicity. Nearly 10 million Asians (4 perce nt of the population) have already been victims of policing according to reports. Indians in America also had testified their complaints about stops and searches of local police. They complained about the vehicle check, (demanding license and registrations) and other checks done by police without any reasonable suspicion. Blacks as well as Latino pedestrians are stopped, questioned and checked without any reason (Juarez 2004). Non-white youths traveling in bikes are simply stopped and questioned for doing nothing wrong. There were incidents in which police dogs attacked non white civil rights protesters. Highway patrol canine units unnecessarily stop the vehicles claiming that they carry drugs. There exists a practice of threatening people of color by releasing dogs. Dogs are trained to attack and maul and are sent to attack people. Several hundreds of blacks and Latinos were attacked in different incidents. ‘Driving while black’ is a kind of policing that affects minor ities. This is an act of police haunting African-Americans for traffic stops as they think they are likely to be indulged in criminal activities. Even though racial profiling is illegal, Supreme Court (according to a decision taken in 1996) permits police to stop and examine motorists (their vehicles) to see whether they have weapons or illegal drugs with them (Juarez 2004). Stopping these people frequently will result in large number of arrests,

Characteristics that a student displays that make him deserving of a Essay

Characteristics that a student displays that make him deserving of a scholarship from the University - Essay Example Hardworking may be a cliche but it still stands true to this day that a student should indeed be diligent, persevering to attain his objectives in life despite the many hindrances there may be. Despite this, the deserving student is also expected to display a positive attitude that will not only be a positive influence to her self but also to those around him. Such individual should be a team player, able to communicate himself clearly to avoid misunderstandings and able to tackle difficult situations in a group. He should be able to manifest organizational skills, able to put his schedules in check and making his time and energy productive. In addition, one should be loyal as this will affect greatly how he acts in places and circumstances that there are no people looking at him. He should then be trust worthy. Respect is another characteristic a good student should possess because this is one of the inner beauties needed by many people and makes the holder of such value loved and r espected in return. This and all of the aforementioned attitudes are all equally important for a student to own and in addition must display good grooming as outer appearance follows inner values.

Case Study Denver International Airport (DIA) Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Denver International Airport (DIA) - Case Study Example Such changes may also delay completion of a project and inflate involved costs. This paper summarizes a case study on Denver International Airport in which the original plan that was formulated without incorporating stakeholders’ interest and ideas led to subsequent reviews of developed plan and consequences on the stakeholders. The paper also discusses relevant topics to the case and possible incorporation of the topics’ concepts into the case. Summary of the case The case involves a decision that was made for construction of the Denver International Airport and the involved consequences on the construction process and stakeholders to the decision. The decision followed increasing demand for services in the city and the construction offered benefits to both Denver and the Federal Aviation Administration that recognized the poor condition of the then city’s airport and its vulnerability to bad weather conditions. Original plans were developed and implementation b egan without incorporation of airlines that preferred operations from the then existing airport. The airlines alienated themselves from the plans because they were opposed to the project but sought involvement after noting that the project was bound for implementation. Such an entry prompted changes such as alteration of baggage handling system with a resultant delay in the official opening of the airport. Major issues in the case are development of the project’s strategic plan, financing of the plan and implementation of the plan. Strategic planning The Denver International Airport project was realistic because of the need that it offered to meet in the city’s air transport. The city is geographically away from other cities and air transport is the most suitable means. Denver also needed expansion in air transport facilities because of demand that was projected to increase and could undermine the then Stapleton Airport and its backup at Front Range Airport. Expansion of the airport further offered investment opportunities from international airlines and its strategic location for international flights enhanced its potentials. The project’s strengths included modern design and layout, optimization potentials, expansion potentials, support from the city, FAA and United Airlines, and high borrowing potential. Other strengths include environmental conservation and easy traffic control. Major weaknesses for the project were long distance from other cities, reliance on borrowed capital, high costs, lack of close industrial packs and possibility of unavailability qualities labor. Major opportunities were growth probability, creation of employment opportunities, commitment from cargo carriers, facilitated investments in the surrounding and development of a centre for air transport while identifiable weaknesses included poor passenger flow, high maintenance costs unhealthy competitions among airlines and competition from Front Range Airport. The D enver city, Denver International Airport management, airlines, and the Federal Aviation Administration were the stakeholders to the in the case. The United Airline did not support the plan until its realization was eminent and United Airline opposed the plan to expand Front Range Airport because the government’s involvement would liberalize operations and disadvantage high cost carriers. The airlines’

Women fce greter chllenges thn men in their ttempts to climb to the Essay

Women fce greter chllenges thn men in their ttempts to climb to the top of the corporte ldder - Essay Example More recently, however, there hs been n influx of women into non-trditionl, higher sttus occuptions, nd it ppers tht trditionl ptterns of occuptionl segregtion my be slowly chnging. It is considered, tht women fce greter chllenge thn men in their ttempts to climb top of the corporte ldder. This suggestion hs been mde due to historicl chnges tht took plce in the distribution of gender workforce nd will be discussed lter in this pper. lthough women nd men hve lwys engged in purposeful ctivity, the set of ctivities tht mny people consider work or employment is not lwys cler. Historiclly, men nd women worked side by side together in the fields. Tody, however, distinction is mde between pid, public work externl to the fmily nd unpid, privte work in the home. Ech of these spheres of work hs come to be sex-typed, with pid work being viewed by mny s the domin of mles nd unpid work in the home the domin of femles. These perceptions re chnging but re still deep-seted in mny respects. Historiclly, men nd women hve hd very different experiences of work. Men hve either secured goods or worked externl to the fmily unit, wheres women often hve worked more integrlly s prt of tht unit. Beginning with industriliztion nd continuing to the workplce tody, men's nd women's experiences of work hve vried significntly, lrgely due to the continuing sex segregtion of occuptions. However, with the onset of two world wrs, both Blck nd White women stedily incresed their numbers in the externl, pid workforce. During the 1990s, the mjority of both men nd women, Blck nd White, were employed outside of the fmily unit. The reltions between men nd women - sometimes chrcterised s "wr" - hve since been trnsformed. In the City of London tody, for exmple, some highly pid expectnt mothers ttempt to time their bonus pyments so tht they fll within the reference period used to clculte mternity py entitlements. If they mnge to win bonus between 18 nd 26 weeks before their expected birth dte, they cn receive mternity py mounting to much more thn they ern normlly - nd with the pprovl of the Inlnd Revenue. How much of this chnge is due to the lw, nd how much would hve hppened nywy becuse of economic nd lbour mrket pressures It is, s lwys, difficult to sy. Yet most commenttors rgue the SD hs hd significnt impct on British working culture. "Tody, it is unusul for women to be discriminted ginst directly becuse they re women, which is wht used to hppen," sys Michel Rubenstein, the founder of Equl Opportunities Review, specilist journl. "The discrimintion tht tkes plce now is mostly round women's fmily roles nd resentment of the disruption it cuses." (Overell, 2006). Jmes Cox, n employment prtner t shurst, n interntionl lw firm, sys: "The City [of London] is the lst bstion of old-style employment prctices, where the focus is on working hrd nd ceding your life to your employer nd clients. "But in the lst few yers it hs been hit relly hrd by women tking [employers to] tribunls nd sometimes wlking wy with multimillion-pound compenstion pyments. It is those cses of the lte 1990s, directly due to the SD, tht hve forced the City to chnge its wys." (Overell, 2006). It is only in very recent yers tht there hs been notble rise in the number of people (mostly women) using sex equlity lw to chllenge employers. In 1998-99, 6,200 women took their employers to tribunl; by 2003-4 the figure hd risen to 17,000 people

Top Reasons Why Students Fail Chemistry Essay Example for Free

Top Reasons Why Students Fail Chemistry Essay See More About: * chemistry top picks * chemistry homework help * study tips Are you taking a chemistry class? Are you worried you might not pass? Chemistry is a subject many students prefer to avoid, even if they have an interest in science, because of its reputation for lowering grade point averages. However, it isnt as bad as it seems, especially if you avoid these common mistakes. 1. Procrastinating Never do today what you can put off until tomorrow, right? Wrong! The first few days in a chemistry class may be very easy and could lull you into a false sense of security. Dont put off doing homework or studying until halfway through the class. Mastering chemistry requires you to build concept upon concept. If you miss the basics, youll get yourself into trouble. Pace yourself. Set aside a small segment of time each day for chemistry. It will help you to gain long-term mastery. 2. Dont cram. Dont go into chemistry until you understand the basics of algebra. Geometry helps, too. You will need to be able to perform unit conversions. Expect to work chemistry problems on a daily basis. Dont rely too much on a calculator. Chemistry and physics use math as an essential tool. 3. Not Getting or Reading the Text Yes, there are classes in which the text is optional or completely useless. This isnt one of those classes. Get the text. Read it! Ditto for any required lab manuals. Even if the lectures are fantastic, youll need the book for the homework assignments. A study guide may be of limited use, but the basic text is a must-have. 4. Psyching Yourself Out I think I can, I think I can you have to have a positive attitude toward chemistry. If you truly believe you will fail you may be setting yourself up for a self-fulfilling prophecy. If you have prepared yourself for the class, you have to believe that you can be successful. Also, its easier to study a topic you like than one you hate. Dont hate chemistry. Make your peace with it and master it. 5. Not Doing Your Own Work Study guides and books with worked answers in the back are great, right? Yes, but only if you use them for help and not as an easy way to get your homework done. Dont let a book or classmates do your work for you. They wont be available during the tests, which will count for a big portion of your grade.

Influences On Air Asia And Its Evolutio

Influences On Air Asia And Its Evolutio Air Asia, the market leader of low cost carriers in Asia, shown on the good record of bringing about innovative idea into the industry. The industry itself, especially in the Asian region, is observing a higher growth rate of passenger and profitability. The report examines the organizations key business structure and operation, products and provides summary analysis of its key revenue lines and strategy. The analysis looks at the impact of external and internal factors on the organization, and evaluate it responses. Essentially SWOT and PESTLE analysis provide a simple framework through which strategic options can be identified in which Air Asia operate. The SWOT process will start by examining the strengths of the Air Asia of today. One of the most dominant strengths possessed by Air Asia is the adding of new Airbus A320 aircraft to its fleet. Airbus A320 gives Air Asia the largest, youngest and most modern fleet in the region. Another strength of Air Asia is the upgrading of the o nline booking system, in which will offer the ability to passenger to check in online and printing out boarding passes. An opportunity available to Air Asia is fastest growing market in China and India. Both countries give a huge opportunity for Air Asia to expand its business in the region. In the threat part of the analysis is concerned with identifying parts of the Air Asia that might affect its business performance. In recent years a whole class of low cost carriers such as Singapores Tiger Airways and other airline carrier coming into the market. PESTLE analysis is to conduct an environment analysis in the context of Air Asia international business operations, describing the major variables involved and the impact of the specific threats and opportunities confronted by Air Asia. The second part of the report is trying to analyze the policies and decision making will be influenced by those human capital and information technology involved. Air Asia has locked a partnership with CAE for mutual benefit where CAE will provide pilot training for all of Air Asia current and future pilot in the region. Air Asia also has locked a partnership with its IT vendor which can constantly improve the system and offer a wide range of distribution channels to make booking and traveling easier for its guests. iv Air Asia has built the Air Asia Academy to develop high quality manpower in ensuring seamless business growth. It operating results underscore two major highlights. The first is how effectively the employee worked to meet customer needs and the second is how well the team manages the robust capacity growth. A number of positions are normally improved to increase its competitive advantages and proficiency, which enables Air Asia to achieve and maintain the business growth. The area of improvement included service, strategic alliance and product improvement. v INTRODUCTION Air Asia is most popular and profitability organization since Air Asia introduced its low fare, no frills concept in December 2001. Dato Tony Fernandes, who introduced the first budget no frills airline, Air Asia, to Malaysian with tagline Now everyone can fly, Air Asias philosophy of low fares is aimed to make flying affordable for everyone (AirAsia.com 2008). It is also aims at making travel easy, convenient and fun for its guests. The airline now flies to over 48 destinations in Malaysia, Vietnam, Myanmar, Cambodia, Thailand, Indonesia, Macau, China and Philippines (AirAsia.com 2008). Air Asia formed two successful joint ventures in Thailand through Thai Air Asia, and Indonesia through Indonesia Air Asia in 2004. Where Air Asia holds 49% stake in both companies. Now, Air Asia expanded its fleet from the original two to twenty eight, and revolutionized air travel in this country by offering incredibly low airfares through its innovative sales channel (AirAsia.com 2008). To date the Air Asia group, has carried over million passengers per year. In the history of Air Asia, we can identified how diligent and smart of Dato Tony Fernandes to operate to be ultimately constructed by external and internal factors on strategic planning to ensuring alignment during implementation of organization success. We all know Air Asia, the heavily indebted subsidiary of the Malaysia government owned conglomerate, DRB-Hicom, was losing money big time. Instead of starting from scratch, Prime Minister Tun Dr. Mahathir Mohamad advised Fernandes to buy an existing airline instead (Wikipedia 2008). Fernandes mortgaged his own house and sank his savings to acquire the company, comprising two ageing Boeing 737-300 jets. Air Asia was acquired at RM 1.00 with liability of over RM 40 million worth of debts, and transformed it into an industry player (Wikipedia 2008). For what happened on this date in history, coming just after the September 2001, undoubtedly the worst day in the history of commercial aviation when nobody wanted to fly, everyone scoffed at his idea, predicting that the company would fail miserably. 1 Yet, just one year after his takeover, Air Asia had broken even and the debt was paid off. For the year to June 2002, a RM 30 million net profit was recorded on revenue of RM 310 million (Wikipedia 2008). Why it happened? What is well made decision to enables Air Asia to achieve and sustain a competitive advantage? The world has changed. Organization has had, and is having significant effects on the way how to make better decisions in organization. Policies and decision making are inherently concerned with the future. Because of this the organization is often concerned with assessing in the future as an input to developing organization strategic plans. This is particularly true in the area of environmental analysis in organization planning. The development of strategies inevitably involves choice between alternatives strategies and hence the need for analysis and decision making. 2 A. Task 1 INTERNAL INFLUENCES ON AIR ASIA 2.1 Organization Vision and Mission Organization vision commonly provides a clear indication of the overall purpose of the organization. It will describe the main activities of the organization and the position or standing that it wishes to achieve in the future. Organization vision of the Air Asia is to continue to be the lower cost short haul airline in every market its serve, delivering strong organic growth through offering the lowest airfares at a profit (AirAsia.com 2008). It is important that the vision stretches the organization but it must be realistic. 2.2 Organizational Structure The structure of an organization refers to the patterns of relationships among positions in the organization and between individual members of the organization. Its will help to define the tasks that people do, the allocation of the responsibility and authority, the roles that people play and the relationships between them. The organization structure and principal operating of Air Asia include three executive vice presidents, for operations, commercials and people, serve under the CEO and the deputy CEO. The senior manager of the network operations, who contributed most of the information in this article, reports to the executive vice president of operations (Idris, 2007). In general, the organization structure of Air Asia also included flight crews, which people responsible for the operation of the aircraft, such as pilot and flight attendants. Ground crew, people will responsible for operations at airports. They are include gate agents, ticket agents, flight dispatchers, baggage ha ndlers, electric system technicians, passengers service agents and airframe and power plant technicians. 3 2.3 Organization Policy The main organization policy of Air Asia is its will provide reliable airlines services to its customers through its various divisions, according to the requirement of customers and in compliance with statutory regulations and industry norms. Therefore, its emphasized in leanest cost structure; maximize shareholders value; safety; passion for guests satisfaction; transparency and human capital development (AirAsia.com 2008). The various divisions will formulate quality objectives for achievement of his policy and strive to continually improve the quality of service by periodically upgrading the knowledge and skills of its personnel. 2.4 Business Strengths One of the best known frameworks done by Air Asia is offering the low airfares in the region. This concept is main focus to lower cost perpetually. As business environments become more competitive and in some cases more volatile, business organization have become more concerned about the price. No matter how clearly history we know, there will be time again when we have to engage in a price war. Therefore, if the airlines get the passenger to their destination on time at low airfares, people will fly the airlines. That was why Air Asia introduced the first budget no frills airline, to Malaysians with the tagline Now everyone can fly (Wikipedia 2008). And that is why it is main focus to lower cost perpetually, so that it can evade and fend off any sort of irrational competition. 4 2.5 SWOT Analysis SWOT analysis can play a valuable part in any strategic planning, it provide a simple framework and common language through which strategic options can be identified. Strength Pioneer in no frills airline services in South East Asia. Cheap rate of flight. Convenience of passenger to purchase air ticket online. Recently purchased Airbus A320s making it largest customer of the type. World class airport facilitate travel. E.g. Kuala Lumpur International Airport Weaknesses Reliance so much on computer for booking and for the storing of information could be risky due to failures and viruses. Marketing primarily focused on ASEAN market. Underdeveloped distribution system. Ineffective use of horizontal distribution alliances. High fuel prices. Opportunities Able to penetrate many ASEAN market and Western market. Airbus A320s enable Air Asia to carry more passengers. The coming Beijing Olympic game 2008 Proximity to large and growing Asian markets, such as India and China. International campaign launch to promoting Malaysia. For example Visit Malaysia 2007. Threats Competition from Singapores Tiger Airways and other airlines carrier in South East Asia. Changing patterns of buying behavior. Deteriorating of Air Asia service base on many complaints. Terrorism threat. Legislation could impact. 5 The strong market share in South East Asia is one of the strategic advantages as it will be the springboard for Air Asia future expansion, growth and profitability. One of the most dominant strengths possessed by Air Asia is its ability to follow the changes in a market that is continually changing. For example, Air Asia seeks to purchase new Airbus A320 aircraft to its fleet. As the number of Airbus A320 aircraft increases, it will be able to cater the largest customer and providing bigger seating capacity, wider aisles, greater comfort and a quieter ride. An opportunity available to Air Asia is fastest growing market in China and India, and the coming Beijing Olympic game 2008. By having a large market it gives a huge opportunity for Air Asia to expand. However, even with the best strategies in place threats can occur from unexpected directions. For example, 9/11/2001 attack on the World Trade Center. Many people are still reluctant to fly and market swings away from airplanes. Ano ther threat to Air Asia is new competitor emergence in the airline market, such as Singapores Tiger Airways and other airlines carrier in South East Asia. This might affect the business outcome of Air Asia. Therefore, how the business is performing and copes with the issues is important to the organization move forward. 6 EXTERNAL INFLUENCES ON AIR ASIA 3.1 PESTLE Analysis 3.1.1 Political PESTLE analysis assumes that the success of an organization is dependent on the way in which the organization manages its interaction with its external environment (University of Sunderland, 2005). The environment presents the organization with series of challenges, risks and opportunities. Such a business would clearly be affected by changes in the political environment. One of the most obvious aspects is some governments attempt to control the industry sector and may impose conditions to protect the local industry for barriers to new entrants. Therefore, in order to ensure smooth growing, Air Asia must analysis and aware the local political stability and governmental function. 3.1.2 Economic Economic trends such as changes in net disposable income levels could also influence the business performance. If disposable income declines the clearly the effective demand is likely to go down. Since the economic crisis in ASEAN on 1997, an individual cannot afford to pay a higher rate had ever traveled in a plane. However, Fernandes believe Malaysian travelers would embrace a low rate air service that will save them time and money, especially in a tight economy. That was why he copied one of the worlds most successful no frills carriers concepts, Ryan air out of Ireland (Wikipedia 2008). Finally his has to be recognized that one of these strategies will be success in the business as a whole. 7 3.1.3 Socio-Cultural Socio-Cultural changes are often long term in the impact but should be monitored all the same. Shift in values may for example affect general attitudes towards traveled in a plane, and changes in business environment with which people can find the best choose of employment in other countries. Attitude changes and demographic changes will change the market as well. Therefore, low airfares promote by Air Asia will delivering strong growth in airline market share. 3.1.4 Technological Technological change may affect the business outcomes in many ways. Simple issues such as the development of internet online booking system launch by Air Asia in recent year. This made Air Asia offer the ability to check in online and print out boarding passes online (Wikipedia 2008). There may influence the size of the potential market and the number of people able to travel to other countries. Increasing access to the internet may change the way in which the customers can booking the air ticket immediately, neither to wait long queue in the counter. Potential customers may also have changed expectations as a result of experiencing new technology. As a result, improved channel distribution has meant that, increasingly, customers are exposed to, and aware of the products in other parts of the world. 3.1.5 Legal The legal framework of a country influences organization strategy through its laws regarding such areas as industry regulation, employment conditions and so forth. However, in today business world, Air Asia needs to take into the consideration in an environment of complex law and regulation. Similarly any general legislation that affected taxation or employment would affect the business outcomes and could affect profitability. Moreover, government bailouts for competitors may lead to unfair competition. 8 3.1.6 Environment Changes in the physical environment, roughly viewed as comprising the natural and man- made environment, affect our daily lives and the functioning of the organizations. In western countries, pollution has become an important political issue and legislators are elected as member of green parties (Media 2008). Indeed, in many countries, the strength of the environmental movement has led to strong legislation affecting organizational production system and products (Media 2008). Air Asia needs to consider the environmental impacts of its strategies and take into account a broader range of interest group. For Example, reduce fuel consumption and energy. In addition, high utilization of resources is enforced to minimize wastages (AirAsia.com 2008). 9 B. Task 2 KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT AND THE LEARNING ORGANIZATION 4.1 Training and Development Training and development will concerned with the provision of learning, development and training opportunities which ensure that the employee has the skilled, motivated and committed it needs now and in the future. Air Asia stresses the training and development of the staff to keep abreast with changes. The normal one week on the job training is given to new employees. Training is ongoing for three months within the period of probation. Employee skills and knowledge will be upgraded with ongoing course using Air Asias academy (Idris, 2007). It ensures that the employee has the skilled to handle multiple jobs in the organization. For example, the cabin crews are not only serving passengers on board but do multiple tasks such as ensuring passengers safety, helping passengers, and ensuring cleanliness of aircraft interior. The training will help the employee to facilitate change in the external and internal environments, in which they are trained to learn new skills and develop new abil ities, to respond to these changes in the organization. 4.1.1 Decision Making Developing Human Capital Air Asia will partners with Canadian Aviation Electronic to build an aviation training centre of excellence and selected Kuala Lumpur as the location for its Southeast Asian training hub. Air Asia has locked a partnership with CAE for mutual benefits where CAE will provide pilot training for all of Air Asia current and future pilot in the region (Mywire.com 2008). These will demonstration of excellence in improving the training quality and human capital development within Air Asia. Partners with CAE will help the organization to develop high quality manpower in ensuring seamless business growth. 10 4.2 Human Resource Management In order to remain high quality manpower in ensure seamless business growth. Air Asia needs to revamp and rethink conventional recruitment strategies to achieve and sustain a competitive advantage. Attracting the right people has never been harder. Indeed recruiting and retaining talent is organizations biggest challenge. Its all well and good operating in a dynamic economic climate but with high attrition rates, inevitable in such competitive times, many are struggling to find the right people to keep up, let alone get ahead. People management is a strategic priority for Air Asia, especially at a time when the organization is rapidly evolving and expanding horizons. Air Asia needs to have the right people for the role, and then to build those into a strength and knowledge, in which to lead the organization becomes a major market player. 4.2.1 Decision Making Recruitment Air Asia believes that investing in people ultimately brings the greatest return. It continued to recruit the overwhelming majority of its talent internally. With over 5,000 employees across eleven countries, Air Asia is blessed with a multi-pool talent and dedicated to hiring and maintaining a workforce of well trained, reliable and safety focused employees at all level of the organization (AirAsia.com 2008). In addition to corporate programs for existing employees, an active recruitment program is in place to attract and retain qualified individuals from all trades and professions. The primary goal is to increase the number of young potentials in the organization and to develop the Air Asia employer brand (AirAsia.com 2008). 11 4.3 Information System The information system has had a greater impact to display the products that can be seen worldwide especially useful for linking Air Asia with customers or business partners. It provides a worldwide distribution channel for information and ability to link market demand to production planning, and helps the management to communicate quickly with those at lower level. Air Asia have became the first in the world to introduce SMS booking where customers could book their seats, checked flight schedules, and obtain the latest promotional announcements through their mobile phones (Idris, 2007). 4.3.1 Decision Making Technology Air Asia keeps introducing innovative ways for online booking and ticket sales. It has locked a partnership with its IT vendors for mutual benefits where Air Asia can constantly improve the system while IT vendor learns to create innovative products according to customer requirements. It offers a wide and innovative range of distribution channels to make booking and traveling easier for its guests. 4.4 Management Policies Policies are fundamentally statements of an organizations intentions relative to their strategic aims. Air Asia mission is to continue to be the lowest cost short-haul airline in every market its serve, delivering strong organic growth through offering the lowest airfares at a profit (AirAsia.com 2008). In order to strive to achievement of the mission and values, the following core value have been a guide for their action, extracted from (AirAsia.com 2008): i) Leanest Cost Structure à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Efficient and simple point to point operations à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Attracting and retaining hardworking and smart people à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Passion for continuous cost reduction 12 ii) Maximize Shareholders Value à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Resilient profit growth through our lower cost base à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Expansion of the Air Asia network in a prudent and disciplined manner à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Invest and enhance the Air Asia brand to increase investors returns iii) Safety à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Comply with the highest International Aviation Safety Standards and practices à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Keep operations simple and transparent à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Ensure the security of our People and Guests iv) Passion for Guests Satisfaction à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Maintain simplicity in every application à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Practice the unique and friendly Air Asia experience at every opportunity à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Recognize the linkage between guests satisfaction and long-term success v) Transparency à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Transparency in decision-making and information sharing à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Optimum disclosure higher than industry norms à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Timeliness in disclosing information vi) Human Capital Development à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Invest in both hard and soft skills à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Recognize all our People as contributors to our success à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Reward excellence and individual contributions à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Maintaining one brand across the Group 13 4.5 Effectiveness of Chosen Strategy According to Air Asia Annual Report (2007), Air Asia today has indeed highlighted by robust growth, record profits, industry leading performance and award winning standards. It humble beginning took flight six years ago, and after 24 consecutive profitable quarters later, Air Asia are now the highest profit margin airline in the world. This can be seen in Figure 4.1. In recent times, the sales of Air Asia excess of RM 1.6 billion, a presence in eleven countries and more than 5,000 employees. Earnings continued to improve thanks to robust passenger growth and improved margins in all business areas. Figure 4.1: The Most Profitable Airline in the World Air Asia Source: Air Asia Financial Report 2007 14 As shown in Figure 4.2, Air Asia recorded revenue of RM 633 million for the quarter ended 31 December 2007. These indicate that 43% higher than the revenue of RM 443 million recoded in the quarter ended 31 December 2006. Its net income improved by 73% to RM 246 million as compared to the net income of RM 142 million achieved in the previous quarter. Figure 4.2: The Superior Growth with Expanding Profits Source: Air Asia Financial Report 2007 15 In the past five year, Air Asia has maintained unwavering focus and discipline in the low cost model. In the process, it have invested significantly to build a solid foundation and to create a platform for sustainable growth. Air Asia has built the Air Asia Academy to develop high quality manpower in ensuring seamless business growth (AirAsia.com 2008). It operating results over the past year underscore two major highlights. The first is how effectively the employee worked to meet customer needs during the highest demand for air travel it has ever experienced. The second highlight was how well the team managed the robust capacity growth. Air Asia corporate strategy and strategic investments have yielded positive results. In year 2007, it unit cost is the lowest reported in the world and it profit margins are among the best (AirAsia.com 2008). Just imagine what Air Asia can achieve in the future. 16 4.6 Area of Improvement Policies and strategies effectiveness is a source of competitive advantage for Air Asia turn into their strength across a range of different product markets. A number of positions are normally can be improved to increase its competitive advantages and proficiency, in which enables Air Asia to achieve and maintain the business growth. 4.6.1 Service Organizations depend on their customers and therefore should understand current and future customer needs, should meet customer requirements and strive to exceed customer expectations. How customer expectations are the standard against which service is judge. Thats the mission. Therefore should understanding customer needs and expectations. In recent years, one of the most obvious aspects of Air Asia done is upgrade their online booking system and payment system to improve efficiency. This will enhance customer satisfaction, and achieve continual improvement of its performance in pursuit of organization objectives. But unfortunately, baggage does not always arrive at its intended destination. Or, if it does, it might turn up damaged or with something missing still always happened. So, how to trace the missing baggage in short period and minimize a similar case happened again. It can help Air Asia to improving the quality of products and services provided to the customer. 17 4.6.2 Strategic Alliance Air Asia introduced a first direct B2B engine to its agents in Asia, through one of its strategic partners, Citibank. The agents make immediate payment via a virtual Air Asia credit card through the internet based real inventory booking engine (AirAsia.com 2008). The question is why; its formed up the strategic alliance between the parties? The popularity is business growth and get in on opportunities. The strategies adopted in a specific market. A gap emerges between what organization goals would like to achieve and what it can do with available resources and capabilities when comparing the threats and opportunities in the environment with an organizations strengths and weaknesses. The gap can be bridged by the alliance. For example, in order to compete on a global scale and at the same time maintain its independence, Air Asia must make alliances in partnership together with others countries to use facilities, produce components and distribution channels to meet a critical business need. In year 2004, Air Asia formed two joint ventures in Thailand through Thai Air Asia, and Indonesia through Indonesia Air Asia (AirAsia.com 2008). Why? Because Air Asia able to extend its marketing reach and build credibility with a particular target market. Its also giving the opportunities to access needed information and greater resources including specialized staff and technology, increase sales in an existing market and enhance technological capabilities through research and development underwritten by more than one party. Another approach is once business is established it has provided the Air Asia with the opportunity to gain new capacity and expertise. 18 4.6.3 Product Improvement Product improvement is the result of consistent, deliberate effort to move the developing organization to a higher level of capability. Product improvement entails developing and launching new products for sale in existing markets (Condensed GSAM Handbook, 2003). It also requires a planned and guided path to excellence, reaching various levels of improvement as intermediate goals along the way such as products with additional features, different packaging, different quality levels etc. For example, Air Asia Go Holiday and Air Asia Tune Hotels which offer travelers a comprehensive package. Many budget travelers prefer to book their airline tickets and hotels together and Air Asia will offer its customers the facility of making room reservations online as they book their flights. In other words, the product will be improved as a natural consequence. So, eventually have hotels in all Air Asia destinations are part of the areas for improvement. This means understanding and responding to customer needs is the key to success in the increasingly competitive advantages. Making our customers happy is important because it translates to an ongoing relationship, whether travel is business or pleasure, which in turn is loyalty. 19 5.0 Conclusion Since Air Asia entry the market, it is rapidly becoming the most popular airline and profitability organization. Why? Because it focuses the strategic analysis on ways of promoting and developing the product ranges. But no business can consider always sustain a competitive advantage without carefully analyze the primary internal and external influences to which the business environment is subject. However, Air Asia will need to understand what is currently happening in the operating environment. What strategies are being adopted by competitors? Are new entrants coming into the sector? How are the markets moving? Therefore, PESTLE and SWOT analysis have been the most usefully tools for looking consideration of the business environment. Likewise Air Asia will need forecasts of what is expected to happen in the future and the business strengths that could be exploited. This will bring its the competitive advantage to the business environment. Therefore how the business is performing and copes with the issues is important to its move forward. 20

Causes of Cardiovascular Disease | Literature Review

Causes of Cardiovascular Disease | Literature Review 2 Abstract 3 Introduction 3.1 Cardiovascular Disease Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the broad class of diseases that involves the heart or/and blood vessels. CVD includes atherosclerosis, heart valve disease, arrhythmia, heart failure, hypertension, endocarditis, diseases of the aorta, disorders of the peripheral vascular system, and congenital heart disease [1]. However, atherosclerosis accounts for the major part of CVD (up to xx%), and sometimes CVD is misleading used as a synonym for atherosclerosis [REF]. Because atherosclerosis is the underlying disease of several CVD, part of patients, where one diagnosis of CVD became manifest, may present with further co-morbidities, especially other diagnosis of CVD are common. However, the portion of patients with co-morbidities is depending on the baseline disease [2-4]. For example 40-60% of patients with Peripheral Arterial Disease (PAD) also have coronary artery disease (CAD) and cerebral artery disease, but only 10-30% of patients with CAD have also PAD (Figure 1) [2, 4]. Further, the severity of cardiovascular co-morbidities correlates well with each other[5-7]. CVD is today responsible for ca. 30% of all deaths worldwide [8], while heart disease and stroke are the leading causes of mortality and disability in developed countries [9]. Although the mortality rates of CVD has a considerable variation across countries (xx% in xx to xx% in xx) [10], a common trend of increasing rates has been observed worldwide. Before 1900, infectious diseases and malnutrition were the most common causes of death throughout the world, and CVD was responsible for The economic burden and the public health costs are mainly driven by CVD. In terms of combined morbidity and mortality, 148 million Disability-Adjusted Life-Years (DALYs) were lost worldwide (2002), which represents about 10% of all lost DALYs [REF]. In 2008, CVD costs about 192 billion Euros a year alone in the European Union, which results in a per capita cost of 391 Euros [13]. 3.1.1 Atherosclerosis Atherosclerosis is the most frequent and important pattern of Arteriosclerosis, other forms of Arteriosclerosis are Mà ¶nckeberg medial calcific sclerosis and Arteriolosclerosis, which vary in pathophysiological and clinical presentation [14]. As described above (3.1), atherosclerosis is the leading cause of death (up to 30%) in developed countries and represents the major portion of CVD. Atherosclerosis (literal origin from Greek: athero = â€Å"gruel or paste†; sclerosis = â€Å"hardness†) is defined as â€Å"thickening and loss of elasticity of arterial walls† and describes a process, where fatty substances, cholesterol, cellular waste products, calcium and fibrin building up in the inner lining of arteries [14]. These intimal lesions are called â€Å"atheromas†, â€Å"atheromatous† or â€Å"fibrofatty plaques†, which lead into an obstruction of vascular lumens and weakness the underlying media. Even within a given arterial bed, lesions or stenoses due to atherosclerosis tend to occur focally, typically in certain predisposed regions. 3.1.1.1 Pathogenesis of Atherosclerosis Due to overwhelming importance of atherosclerosis, enormous efforts have been spent to discover its cause over the last few decades. Today, the currently accepted concept, so called â€Å"the response to injury hypothesis†, considers atherosclerosis to be a chronic inflammatory response of the arterial wall initiated by injury to the endothelium [15]. Furthermore, lesion initiation and progression are sustained by interaction between lipoproteins, macrophages, T-lymphocytes, and the normal cellular constituents of the arterial wall. This process of developing atherosclerosis, which typically lasts over a period of many years usually many decades, can be divided into several consecutive steps, as illustrated in Figure 2 [REF]. Parallel, a morphological change is observed within the artery wall, where fatty streak represents the initial morphological lesion, even so the pathogenesis has started quite earlier with a chronic endothelial injury [REF]. Figure 2: Illustration of the Pathogenesis and Morphological Development of Atherosclerosis. SMC: Smooth muscle Cell; 6 ÃŽ ¼m thick histology slices of coronary arteries stained with Movats pentachrome. A: pathological intimal thickening with a â€Å"fatty streak†; B: pathological intimal thickening with a macrophage infiltration; C: early fibroatheroma with neoangiogenesis; D: fibroatheroma with thin fibrous cap and a healed rupture; E; late fibroatheroma with a sheet calcification. * demarks necrotic scores. Histology performed by CVPath Laboratory, Maryland, MD. The below described steps of the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis shouldnt been seen as a separated processes. They are interconnected and occur parallel. Further, several mechanism of vicious circles are described [REF]. However, the stratification into the flowing six steps helps to understand the complex pathogenesis and represents the current understanding: (1) Chronic Endothelia Injury As the earliest step in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis, endothelial activation and chronic injury, also known as endothelial dysfunction, have been described [16]. The following factors contributed in different extent to endothelial dysfunction and are partly known as traditional risk factors for atherosclerosis [17]: advancing age, dyslipidemia, hypertension, increased levels angiotensin, insulin resistance and diabetes, smoking, estrogen deficiency. Several biochemical pathways have been described for those factors increasing the endothelial dysfunction. Other factors like hyperhomocysteinemia, possible infection and especially low or oscillatory shear stress are still discussed whether they significantly contribute to endothelial dysfunction [18-22]. The phenotypic features of endothelial dysfunction are described as the reduced vasodilator and increased vasoconstrictor capacity, an enhanced leukocyte adhesion, an increase of pro-thrombotic and decrease of fibrinolytic activi ty, and an increase in growth-promoting. (2) Accommodation and Oxidation of Lipoproteins In addition and due the endothelial dysfunction lipoproteins, especially low density lipoprotein (LDL), sequestered from plasma in the extracellular space of the arterial intima. Beside the extent of endothelial dysfunction, this process is depending on the concentration of LDL in the blood circulation [23]. Even so several mechanisms have been proposed for transport of LDL into the arterial intima including vesicular ferrying through endothelial cells, passive sieving through endothelial-cell pores, passage between cells, its not finally understand. However, strong evidence exist, that the accommodation of LDL in the arterial intima is not only a passive effect by a â€Å"leaking† vascular endothelium [REF]. Part of the lipoproteins that have entered the arterial wall stay there and are modified subsequently. Especially the modification of the lipoproteins has a trapping function for die selbigen [24]. The most common modification is the oxidation of lipoproteins, giving rise to hydroperoxides, lysophospholipids, oxysterols, and aldehydic breakdown products of fatty acids and phospholipids. But further modification like fusion of lipoproteins, proteolysis, lipolytic degradation and glycation are well known [25]. Such modified lipoproteins or particles of the modification process have inflammatory potential and trigger a local inflammatory response responsible for signaling subsequent steps in the atherogenesis. It includes a further increased endothelial dysfunction, which may cause a vicious circle of LDL accumulation, and activation of various cell types [24, 26, 27]. (3) Migration of Monocytes and Transformation into Macrophages/Foam Cells More important, the inflammatory response induces migration of leukocytes such as monocytes or lymphocytes into the lesion. Leukocytes are attracted by chemoattractant factors including modified lipoprotein particles themselves and chemoattractant cytokines depicted by the smaller spheres, such as the chemokine monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, interleukin 1 (IL-1) or tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-ÃŽ ±) produced by vascular wall cells in response to the inflammatory process [REF]. The activated arterial endothelial cells express a number of adhesion molecules and receptors on their surface, which participate in the recruitment of leukocytes from the blood to the nascent lesion [REF]. Macrophages are a key player in atherogenesis [27]. They develop from recruited monocytes, which migrated as described above into the lesion. In the mediator stimulated process of maturation, those macrophages become lipid-laden foam cells by uptake of lipoprotein particles through receptor-mediated endocytosis [REF]. The accumulation of lipid in the macrophages results in the apoptosis and necrosis, which lead first to a boosted expression and secretion of inflammatory cytokines and second to a release of their lipid excess into a necrotic lipid-core [REF]. Macrophages further produce enzymes, such as metalloproteinases, that degrade the extracellular matrix and lead to instability of plaques [REF]. (4) Adhesion of platelets and Release of SMC activating factors The inflammatory process, especially triggered by the necrosis of the foam cells, microscopic breaches in endothelial integrity may occur. Platelets adhere to such sites of limited endothelial denudation owing to exposure of the thrombogenic extracellular matrix of the underlying basement membrane and form microthrombi. Although most of the arterial mural microthrombi resolve without any clinical manifestation, they lead indirectly to lesion progression by pro-fibrotic stimulation [REF]. The platelets, activated by adhesion, release numerous factors that promote a fibrotic response, including platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), fibroblast growth factor (FGF), insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), and transforming growth factor alpha (TGF-ÃŽ ±) [28-30]. Thrombin itself generates fibrin that has a pro-fibrotic stimulus [28]. (5) Migration and Proliferation of SMCs The pro-fibrotic response includes first the migration of SMC from the media of the arterial wall, through the internal elastic membrane, and the accumulation within the expanding intima of the arterial wall. Second, stimulate the proliferation of SMC, which is responsible to form the bulk of the advanced lesion. Another part of the advanced lesions is an increased extracellular matrix. TGF-ÃŽ ± and other mediators stimulate the interstitial collagen production by SMC. These mediators may arise not only from neighboring endothelial cells or leukocytes (a paracrine pathway) but also from the same cell that responds to the factor (an autocrine pathway). Together, these alterations in smooth-muscle cells, signaled by these mediators acting at short distances, can accelerate transformation of the early lesion (fatty streak) into a more fibrous SMC and extracellular matrix-rich plaque. (6) Enhanced accumulation of lipids, collagen and proteoglycans The formation of a complex atherosclerotic lesion is characteristic by an extent remodeling process. Further foam cells within the expanding intimal lesion perish, while they phagocytose more and more lipids. The fibrotic cap between the so arisen lipid-rich necrotic core and the vascular lumen may vary in thickness and allows the classification of â€Å"thin cap fibroatheroma†, which correlates with a higher risk for acute luminal thrombosis [REF]. The production of extracellular matrix, as well plaque evolution and complication can be stimulated by diverse growth factors or cytokines like IL-1 or TNF-ÃŽ ±, and can be inhibited by other cytokines (e.g. interferon alpha (IFN-ÃŽ ±)) [REF]. As atherosclerotic plaques advance, they show intimal arterial calcification [REF]. The same proteins, which can be found in bone, are also localize in atherosclerotic lesions, e.g., osteocalcin, osteopontin, and bone morphogenetic proteins [31]. Both, passive and active models are discussed for the development calcification [32]. SMC can, promoted by several cytokines (e.g. transcription core binding factor ÃŽ ±1), acquire osteoblast-like characteristics and secrete bone matrix [33]. These examples illustrate how the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis involves a complex mix of mediators that in the balance determines the characteristics of particular lesions [REF]. 3.1.1.2 The Role of Inflammation The role of inflammation is central, while those inflammatory mechanisms mediate initiation, progression, and the complications of atherosclerotic lesions [26, 34]. Through the inflammatory process, arterial endothelial cells begin to express on their surface selective adhesion molecules that bind various classes of leukocytes, especially monocyte and T lymphocyte which are found in early human and experimental atheroma [REF]. After monocytes adhere to the endothelium, they can first migrate in the intima, largely stimulated by chemokines; and second transform into macrophages and avidly engulf lipoproteins, largely oxidized LDL [REF]. Although the phagocytosis of potentially harmful lipid particles by macrophages and subsequently the transformation into foam cells has an initially protective, this process involves further expression and secretion of inflammatory chemokines like Interleukin (IL)-1, Monocyte Chemotactic Protein (MCP)-1 or Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF)-ÃŽ ±. Those enhanc e the inflammatory reaction and enable the further migration of leukocytes into the lesion [REF]. Macrophages also produce toxic oxygen species that cause additional oxidation of the LDL in the lesions, and they elaborate growth factors that may contribute to SMC proliferation [REF]. Similary, T lymphocytes (both CD4+ and CD8+) are also recruited to the intima by chemo-attractants. Cross-talk between macrophages and T cells induces a chronic inflammatory state regarding cellular and humoral immune activation characteristics. This state of a chronic inflammation leads also to the next observed steps in the development and progression of atherosclerosis. Thus, it stimulates the migration and proliferation of smooth muscle cells (SMC), as well the proliferation of vascular endothelial cells in the lesion. Through fibrogenic mediators, released from activated leukocytes and intrinsic arterial cells, the replication of SMCs is getting enhanced and contributes to elaboration by these cells of a dense extracellular matrix characteristic of the more advanced atherosclerotic lesion. 3.1.1.3 Vasa Vasorum and Neo-Angiogenesis The vasa vasorum of the aorta is as a plexus in the wall of artery of microvessels, which are functional endarteries [35, 36]. They either originate from major branches, originate from the main lumen of the aorta or drain in concomitant veins [37]. These vessels allow the humoral communication between intravascular lumen, vessel wall and adventitial layer of large arteries including oxygen and nutrients supply [REF]. Several studies demonstrated that hypoxia [38], cytokines (e.g. vascular endothelial growth factor) [39, 40], pro-angiogenic factors (e.g. hypertension or hypercholesterolemia) stimulate the growth of the vasa vasorum [41]. Those increased microvascular network may contribute to inflammation and lesion complications in several ways. First, the vasa vasorum provides an abundant surface area for leukocytes trafficking and may serve as the portal of entry and exit of white blood cells from the established atheroma. Microvessels in the plaques may also furnish foci for intraplaque hemorrhage. Like the neovessels in the diabetic retina, microvessels in the atheroma may be friable and prone to rupture and can produce focal hemorrhage. Such a vascular leak leads to thrombosis in situ and thrombin generation from prothrombin. In addition to its role in blood coagulation, thrombin can modulate many aspects of vascular cell function, as described above. Atherosclerotic plaques often contain fibrin and hemosiderin, an indication that episodes of intraplaque hemorrhage contribute to plaque complications. Multiple and often competing signals regulate these various cellular events. Increasingly, we appreciate links between atherogenic risk factors, inflammation, and the altered behavior of intrinsic vascular wall cells and infiltrating leukocytes that underlie the complex pathogenesis of these lesions. The present data indicate that vasa vasorum neoangiogenesis and atherosclerosis are seemingly inseparably linked, triggered and perpetuated by inflammatory reactions within the vascular wall. 3.1.1.4 Risk Factors for Development of Atherosclerosis Local shear stress In the coronary circulation, for example, the proximal left anterior descending coronary artery exhibits a particular predilection for developing atherosclerotic disease. Likewise, atherosclerosis preferentially affects the proximal portions of the renal arteries and, in the extracranial circulation to the brain, the carotid bifurcation. Indeed, atherosclerotic lesions often form at branching points of arteries, regions of disturbed blood flow. Age, Gender, HTN, HLP, DM, Smoking, Race/Ethnicity, 3.1.1.5 Atherosclerosis of the Aorta In the characteristic distribution of atherosclerotic plaques in humans the abdominal aorta (Fig. 11-8) is usually much more involved than the thoracic aorta, and lesions tend to be much more prominent around the origins (ostia) of major branches. In descending order (after the lower abdominal aorta), the most heavily involved vessels are the coronary arteries, the popliteal arteries, the internal carotid arteries, and the vessels of the circle of Willis. Vessels of the upper extremities are usually spared, as are the mesenteric and renal arteries, except at their ostia. Nevertheless, in an individual case, the severity of atherosclerosis in one artery does not predict the severity in another. In an individual, and indeed within a particular artery, lesions at various stages often coexist. 2009_Dijk_The natural history of aortic atherosclerosis_A systematic histopathological evaluation of the peri-renal region.pdf 3.1.2 Peripheral Arterial Disease Peripheral Arterial Disease (PAD) is caused by atherosclerosis and represents the most common cause of lower extremity ischemic syndromes in developed countries [42]. Symptoms of PAD are variable including pain, ache, hair loss, thickened nails, smooth and shiny skin, reduced skin temperature, cramp, muscle atrophy, or a sense of fatigue in the muscles. Because of the variability of symptoms, the diagnosis of PDA is frequently missed [43]. In addition, the major part of patients with PAD is asymptomatic [REF]. Beside these diagnostic challenges, PAD affects a large and increasing numbers of patients worldwide. Round 30 million people are diseased in worldwide, but of those only 10 million patients are presenting with symptoms [44]. Further, the prevalence is increasing with age [6, 45], while the prevalence is 10% at the age of 60 years [46]. Association to mortality!!! 3.1.2.1 Pathogenesis of Peripheral Artery Disease The leading cause of PAD is atherosclerosis, especially in older patients (>40 years) and at the lower extremities [42]. Other, but rare causes of PAD include embolism, vasculitis, fibromuscular dysplasia, entrapment, and trauma. Atherosclerotic lesions, which are segmental and cause stenosis, are usually localized to large and medium-sized vessels. The pathology of these lesions is based on atherosclerotic plaques development, as described above (xxx). The primary sites of involvement are the abdominal aorta and iliac arteries (30% of symptomatic patients), the femoral and popliteal arteries (80-90%), and the more distal arteries (40-50%) [REF]. Atherosclerotic lesions have been predominantly observed at arterial branch points. These may be explained by altered shear stress [REF]. However, the involvement of the distal and smaller arteries is more common in elderly individuals and patients with diabetes mellitus [REF]. 3.1.2.2 Risk Factors for Peripheral Arterial Disease While atherosclerosis is the major underlying condition of PAD, the risk factors for PAD are essentially the same as those for other form of atherosclerosis (like e.g. CAD), see Table 1 [47-50]. However, the risk factors smoking and diabetes may have even greater effect for PAD as compared for CAD [51]. Risk Factors Increased risk for PAD Hypercholesterolemia 1- to 2-fold (low) Homocysteinemia 1- to 3-fold (moderate) Hypertension 1- to 3-fold (moderate) Smoking (current and past) 2- to 4-fold (high) Diabetes mellitus 2- to 4-fold (high) Table 1: Risk Factors for Peripheral Arterial Disease 3.1.2.3 Clinical Presentation of Peripheral Artery Disease PAD affects more often the lower extremities (xx times more often than upper extremities) [REF]. The most common symptom of PAD is intermittent claudication, which is defined as presence of pain, ache, cramp, numbness, or a sense of fatigue in the muscles. Those symptoms occur during exercise and are relieved by rest, as result of the increased muscle ischemia during exercise caused by obstruction to arterial flow. Patients with PAD in the lower extremities resulting in ischemia may range in presentation from no symptoms to limb-threatening gangrene. Two major classifications based on the clinical presentations are established, the Fontaine and the Rutherford classification. While the more simple Fontaine classification consists of four stages (Table 2) [52], the Rutherford classification has four grades (0-III) and seven categories (0-6). Asymptomatic patients are classified into Rutherford category 0. Any patient with claudicants are stratified into Rutherford grade I and divided into three categories based on the severity of the symptoms. If patients have pain at rest, they belong to Rutherford grade II and category 4. Any patient with tissue loss are classified into Rutherford grade III and categories 5 and 6, based on the significance of the tissue loss [4]. These two clinical classifications can be translated into each other according to Table 2. Fontaine Classification Rutherford Classification Stage Clinical Grade Category Clinical I Asymptomatic 0 0 Asymptomatic IIa Mild claudication I 1 Mild claudication IIb Moderate to severe claudication I 2 Moderate claudication I 3 Severe claudication III Ischemic rest pain II 4 Ischemic rest pain IV Ulceration or gangrene III 5 Minor tissue loss III 6 Major tissue loss Table 2: Classification of Peripheral Arterial Disease based on the Fontaine Classification in Comparison the Rutherford Classification In the Framingham Offspring Study, the prevalence of PAD was determined in 1554 males and 1759 females from 1995 to 1998.55 The mean age was 59 years. PAD, defined as an ankle-brachial (blood pressure) index (ABI) of ABI Severity of PAD The physician also queried the participant about symptoms of intermittent claudication using a standardized questionnaire [53]. 3.2 Local Adipose Tissue Depots 3.2.1 Variability of Adipose Tissue 3.2.1.1 Anatomy and Morphology SACK: Epicardial, mesenteric, and omental fat all share the same origin from the splanchnopleuric mesoderm associated with the gut.11 Pericardial fat (pericardial adipose tissue [PAT]) is defined as epicardial fat in all these possible locations plus paracardial fat.14 Paracardial fat is situated on the external surface of the parietal pericardium within the mediastinum and has alternatively been termed mediastinal fat.15 Paracardial fat originates from the primitive thoracic mesenchyme, which splits to form the parietal (fibrous) pericardium and the outer thoracic wall.16 Epicardial adipose tissue is supplied by branches of the coronary arteries, whereas paracardial fat is supplied from different sources including the pericardiacophrenic artery, a branch of the internal mammary.17 Lipolysis and lipogenesis have not been measured directly in human epicardial fat. Based on approximately 2-fold higher rates of lipolysis and lipogenesis in guineapig epicardial fat than other fat depots, Marchington et al18,19 proposed that EAT serves to capture and store intravascular free fatty acid (FFA) to protect cardiomyocytes from exposure to excessive coronary arterial FFA concentrations during increased energy intake and, at other times, to release FFA as an immediate ATP source for the myocardium during periods of need. Epicardial fat and the myocardium are contiguous. Islands of mature adipocytes are more frequ ent within the subepicardial myocardium of the RV than the LV13 and may act as more readily available, direct sources of FFA for cardiomyocytes. The thickness of the wall of the right atrium is about 2 mm; the left atrium, 3 to 5 mm; the RV, 3 to 5 mm; and the LV, 13 to 15 mm.20 Possibly, FFAs could diffusebidirectionally in interstitial fluid across concentration gradients from epicardial fat into the atrial and RV walls where EAT predominates and vice versa, but this process in the LV wall can be questioned because the diffusion distance is much longer. Peri-vascular adipose tissue is defined as any adipocytes, which are located close to the vascular wall and has the possibility to secret their biomarkers into the vasa vasora of the wall (see 3.2.1.2). 3.2.1.2 Secretion of Biomarkers by Adipose Tissue Adipose tissue is known to have more functions than lipid storing. Adipose tissue secrets biomarkers and serves as an endocrine organ. Beside hormones, it secrets also different inflammatory cytokines and chemokines. The amount of adipose tissue were associated to xxx, xxx, xxx (FRAMINGHAM?!). Especially peri-vascular adipose tissue like epicardial or visceral adipose tissue demonstrated higher expression of inflammatory biomarkers compared to other adipose tissue depots in the body [REF]. Beside the systemic effect of the secreted cytokines and chemokines, also a local effect/paracrine is hypothesied. Biomarkers secreted of peri-vascular adipose tissue reach over the vasa vasora of the major arteries their adventitia, media, and intima. Therefore it might be involved in the inflammatory process of atherosclerotic plaque. Further, a local effect can be thought by direct diffusion. 3.2.2 Association of Adipose Tissue to Cardiovascular Disease 3.2.2.1 Atherosclerosis 3.2.2.2 Peripheral Arterial Disease 3.2.3 In-Vivo Assessmentof Adipose Tissue 3.2.3.1 Traditional Measures * BMI and WC [54] 3.2.3.2 Imaging-based Assessment * dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) [55] * magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) [56, 57] * ultrasound [58] * multi-detector computed tomography (MDCT) [59, 60] 3.3 Framingham Heart Study 3.3.1 Historical Origin of the Framingham Heart Study Infectious diseases were prior to World War II the major burden for public health. But through a greater microbiological knowledge and improved sanitation, the morbidity and mortality of infectious disease decreased continuously. When penicillin was introduced in 1942, a dramatic reduction was made in the prevalence and incidence of infectious diseases, especially by controlling tuberculosis and pneumococcal pneumonia [REF]. Replacing infectious diseases, public health was challenged by a mounting epidemic of CVD starting in the 1940s. With World War II over the alarming rise of CVD became increasingly evident. In the United States, 30% of all men developed CVD before reaching the age sixty. The prevalence of CVD was twice of cancer by 1950 and had become the leading cause of death [REF]. Even so the available statistic data from around the world was often crude and inaccurate, it clearly demonstrated a worldwide atherosclerotic CVD problem. Furthermore there was no known treatment to prolong life and to reduce mortality. Added to these distresses was the fact that little was known about etiology, pathogenesis and epidemiology of CVD. The big gap between the enormous public health burden of CVD on the one site and the little understanding of this disease on the other site increased drastically the need for action. At this time, some believed a primary preventative approach was more promising than a search for cures [Dawber, Thomas R. (1980), The Framingham Study: The Epidemiology of Atherosclerotic Disease, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.], while the secrets of the etiology of CVD and subsequently for treatment were not being uncovered by basic laboratory and clinical research. Some of these prevention-minded individuals occupied positions of influence and were able to translate their beliefs into actions. The key was to develop a preventive approach, where first of all the characteristics of the host and environment, which lead to the early appearance of the disease, had to be determined. In particular, preventable or modifiable predisposing factors had to be identified. If a practical preventive approach was developed, the hope was that doctors and public health officials would adopt it and so have a widespread impact on the reduction of CVD-based morbidity and mortality. Accordingly to the preventive approach, the Framingham Heart Study was designed given the charge to identify these modifiable characteristics of host and environment for CVD. 3.3.2 Initiation of the Framingham Heart Study By the mid 1940s several striking studies were conducted with an examples epidemiological approach in the fields of nutritional imbalance, metabolic disorders, occupational hazards, accidents, cancer and rheumatic fever under principle investigators (PI) Drs. Dawber, Meadors and Moore [REF, Dawber, Meadors and Moore 1951]. In common, an association between the circumstances and the disease could be identified with-out knowledge of the precise etiology. One of those studies was performed by Dr. John Snow in 1936. He demonstrated that cut-ting off the water supply from contaminated wells, despite incomplete knowledge of the pathogenesis of the disease, stopped cholera. He observed on the one hand the source of the water supply and on the other hand the time and place where the disease occurred. He sufficiently pinpointed based on his observations the major environmental factor for cholera. Further investi

Naturalism and Symbolism in the Poem Design by Robert Frost Essay

Naturalism and Symbolism in the Poem "Design" by Robert Frost The poem "Design" by Robert Frost is a sonnet written about man's relationship with nature. Frost deliberately uses the form of a sonnet, using the octave for a discussion and the sextet for questioning the fact that there is a force that controls our existence. There are natural characters and some degrees of irony also that give this poem a naturalistic feel. Frost uses the style of a sonnet in "Design" to present a philosophical problem - who controls our destiny. The octave is a single, smooth flowing sentence full of description. We are introduced to three things the narrator happened upon one day. There is a scene of contradictory pictures. The color of the white heal--all, the white spider, and the white moth all suggest purity and innocence. These are the, as the speaker describes them, "characters of death and blight." The octave has a lighter tone than the sextet. Even thought the tone is lighter there still seems to be a tension and seriousness that flows evenly to the sextet, which seems to bring chills to the reader's spine. The sextet is a series of questions that reveals a blend of emotions. The sextet brings about an unexpected change in tone. The poet is no longer observing, but questioning. The first question sounds like he is questioning something that doesn't fit in. The next question brings about a harsher image. The last question is the revelation into the speaker's torment. In the sextet, where the issues are raised, they should be solved in the following octet. They are not. Frost poses three unanswerable questions. The speaker seems reluctant to asks these questions and face them openl... ...ting there. It may be considered fate. The fate of the moth lay in the spider eating it. It was born to fly near that white flower and feed the spider. There is also a third reason that could be addressed. Naturally, a white moth would be attracted to a white flower as camouflage from predators. The white spider would use the flower as concealment from prey. There is a design at work but not a "design of darkness." It is simply an order of nature. It can be attributed to survival of the fittest. The final verse however calls to doubt not just evidence of natural darkness but the entire epistomogical basis of the poem. Is there someone or something controlling us or are we so small that is doesn't really matter in the grand scheme of things. "If design govern a thing so small" questions the result and method of the rest of the poem.

Herbal Medicine Essay -- essays research papers

Herbal medicine is the extraction of herbs or plants which have a medicinal value in treating illnesses and diseases (Brody 1). A herb is known as a plant that does not have a woody stem and usually dies back at the end of each growing season. It is also known as a "natural" drug because they are derived from nature. This is unlike pharmaceutical drugs, which are synthesized from chemicals. Herbal medicine dates back a very long time. More than 4,000 years ago, the Chinese emperor Qien Nong put a book together, or a herbal, of different medicinal plants (O’ Sullivan 2). It contained descriptions of more than 300 plants. Some of these plants are still used today. The Sumerians, at the same time recorded prescriptions on clay tablets. Also, the Egyptians recorded their information regarding medicine on rolls of papyrus. A very famous papyrus is the Ebers Papyrus, which includes specific information on how to use different plants (Brody 1). The Greeks and Romans learned about herbal medicine from these early civilizations. They also recorded them in books. We know of these works because they are translated into Arabic. Monks in Europe studied and grew plants for medicinal use. They translated the Arabic and that helped them with the plants. The first drugstores were in Baghdad (which is present day Iraq) in the 9th century (Smith 1). In the 13th century, major trade of herbs and spices occurred in London. Since there were no standards, bad quality herbs and wrong substitutes were often sold. Carolus Linneaus introduced the binomial system of plant nomenclature in 1753 (O’Sullivan 1). This helped identify plants scientifically, which helped to avoid mistakes between different plants. Many drugs commonly used today are of herbal origin. About one-quarter of the prescription drugs distributed by pharmacies in the United States contain at least one ingredient derived from plant material. Today, everyone from health care consumers to providers are learning about natural options to help with being healthy. â€Å"Herbalists, or individuals who use herbal remedies to alleviate pain, are on the rise in the United States† (Tremmel 1). In 1995, a survey was taken with about 600 physicians across the count... ...umerous kinds of herbal medicines available today. The best way of getting you money’s worth is by asking for the most popular one. This isn’t the only step, but also ask for any clinical trials, consult your doctor, and/or the company of the product. This way you can get the most effective product and be safe at the same time. I think that this new era of using natural herbal medicine is great and I support it greatly. Trying something new for a change is good. Even though some kinds of herbal medicine can produce harmful effects, many of the others are good. The only problem I see is that the Food and Drug Administration didn’t make it a requirement for the makers to submit studies on the drugs. Therefore, maybe sellers can make specific claims about preventing a disease even though it isn’t true. So if the FDA starts testing the medicines and helps separate the good from the bad then everything will be great. Thus, herbal medicine is medicine made from different parts of plants. They have become very popular in modern times. Some of these herbal medicines can be helpful while others can be harmful.